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Prepublished online as a Blood First Edition Paper on August 8, 2002; DOI 10.1182/blood-2002-05-1552.
TRANSPLANTATION
From the Divisions of Bone Marrow Transplantation and
Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine; Department of Pathology;
and Departments of Pediatrics and Microbiology and Immunology; Stanford
University School of Medicine, CA.
Myelotoxic treatments for oncologic diseases are often complicated
by neutropenia, which renders patients susceptible to potentially lethal infections. In these studies of murine hematopoietic stem cell
transplantation (HSCT), cotransplantation of lineage-restricted progenitors known as common myeloid progenitors (CMP) and
granulocyte-monocyte progenitors (GMP) protects against death following
otherwise lethal challenge with either of 2 pathogens associated with
neutropenia: Aspergillus fumigatus and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. Cotransplantation of CMP/GMP resulted in a
significant and rapid increase in the absolute number of myeloid cells
in the spleen, most of which were derived from the donor CMP/GMP.
Despite persistent peripheral neutropenia, improved survival correlated
with the measurable appearance of progenitor-derived myeloid cells in
the spleen. A marked reduction or elimination of tissue pathogen load
was confirmed by culture and correlated with survival. Localization of
infection by P aeruginosa and extent of disease was
also assessed by in vivo bioluminescent imaging using a strain of
P aeruginosa engineered to constitutively express a
bacterial luciferase. Imaging confirmed that transplantation with a
graft containing hematopoietic stem cells and CMP/GMP reduced the
bacterial load as early as 18 hours after infection. These results
demonstrate that enhanced reconstitution of a tissue myeloid pool
offers protection against lethal challenge with serious fungal and
bacterial pathogens.
(Blood. 2002;100:4660-4667) Numerous disease states The rising incidence of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised
hosts, especially following allogeneic HCT, has been well chronicled
during the past 2 decades. Among recipients of allogeneic HCT, 5% to
15% will develop invasive aspergillosis, with a mortality rate of 90%
to 100% despite aggressive antifungal therapy.1,2 Although it is not the only important risk factor, neutropenia remains
the single greatest risk factor for the development of invasive
aspergillosis in all populations. It is believed that shortening the
duration of neutropenia should reduce the incidence of
disease.2 It has been well established in vitro and
indirectly shown in animal models that neutrophils are likely the
primary effectors against the invasive hyphae of Aspergillus
spp.8,15 However, infusions of
corticosteroid-mobilized peripheral neutrophils have not resulted in
the durable reduction of neutropenia, prevention of aspergillosis, or a
definitive enhancement in the treatment of aspergillosis. This failure
may be due to the extremely short intravascular residence time of
transfused myelomonocytic cells.16-20 Although it is clear
that transient increases in peripheral neutrophil counts are not
sufficient to protect against opportunistic infections, the question
still remains whether blood or tissue levels of myelomonocytic cells
determine susceptibility to these fungal pathogens. To develop a model
of HCT-related aspergillosis, we transplanted highly purified hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) into lethally irradiated
histocompatible hosts and infected them with lethal doses of
aspergillus conidia in the early posttransplantation period. Using this
model we were able to study the functional reconstitution of innate
immunity resulting from the cotransplantation of different cell
subpopulations along with the purified HSCs.
Animal models of invasive aspergillosis have thus far relied on
chemotherapy-induced neutropenia or corticosteroid
administration to render the animals susceptible to
infection.15,21 The lethal dose of aspergillus conidia
depends on the route of delivery. Frequently cited lethal doses for
aspergillus inoculated intravenously are between 1 × 106
and 1 × 108 conidia. In our model, following
myeloablative irradiation and HSC rescue of the host animals, the
lethal dose of intravenously administered conidia is 100 conidia, 5 logs lower than in previously presented models. More importantly, the
response to aspergillus may be studied in the absence of exogenously
administered corticosteroids.
We have recently identified and characterized several
lineage-restricted hematopoietic progenitors, including the common
lymphocyte progenitor (CLP),22 the common myeloid
progenitor (CMP) and, downstream of CMP, the granulocyte-monocyte
progenitor (GMP) and the megakaryocyte-erythroid progenitor
(MEP).23 In pilot experiments leading to this study,
cotransplantation of HSC+CMP/GMP, but not HSCs alone, resulted in a
detectable increase in the number of splenic myelomonocytic cells by 6 days following myeloablative irradiation and hematopoietic
transplantation (D+6). In contrast, there was no significant shortening
of the duration of peripheral blood neutropenia in either group.
Therefore, we determined if enhanced tissue levels of hematopoietic
subpopulations in mice that underwent cotransplantation with HSCs and
CMP/GMP would protect against lethal challenges of either invasive
aspergillosis or virulent P aeruginosa.
In both models of infections, cotransplantation of CMP/GMP
resulted in improved survival and reduced pathogen loads. These results clearly implicate tissue rather than blood levels of
myelomonocytic cells in the protection against these opportunistic pathogens.
Mice
Irradiation
Isolation of hematopoietic stem cells Whole bone marrow cells were depleted of mature erythrocytes via ammonium chloride lysis and enriched for c-kit+ cells by staining with biotinylated rat antimouse c-kit (3C11), followed by streptavidin immunomagnetic beads (Miltenyi Biotec, Auburn, CA). The enriched cells were then stained with phycoerythrin (PE)-conjugated lineage markers: CD3 (145-2C11; Pharmingen, San Diego, CA), CD4 (Gk1.5), CD5 (53-7.8), CD8 (53-6.7), B220 (6B2), Ter119, Mac-1 (M1/70), and Gr-1 (RB6-8C5). They were also stained with the following stem cells markers: fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated anti-Thy1.1 (19XE5), Texas Red-conjugated anti-Sca-1 (E13-161), and allophycocyanin (APC)-conjugated anti-c-kit (2B8).24,25 To ensure purity, hematopoietic stem cells were double-sorted using a modified fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS Vantage, BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) equipped with a 488-nm argon and a 599-nm dye laser (made available through the FACS shared user group at Stanford University). Dead cells were excluded from sort gates by propidium iodide staining.Isolation of CMP/GMP populations Whole bone marrow cells were depleted of mature erythrocytes by ammonium chloride lysis and stained with biotinylated rat antibodies against the lineage (Lin) markers, IL-7R -chain (A7R34), CD19 (1D3;
Pharmingen), immunoglobulin M (IgM) (R6-60.2; Pharmingen), Thy 1.1 (19XE5), and unconjugated rat antibodies against Ter119, Gr-1
(RB6-8C5), and cyanine (Cy)-Chrome-conjugated rat antimouse CD45R/B220 (RA3-6B2; Pharmingen). The Lin+ cells
were partially removed following incubation with sheep antirat
Dynabeads (Dynal, Oslo, Norway) and magnetic depletion. To visualize
the remaining Lin+ population, the cells were stained with
CD45R/B220 Cy-Chrome (RA3-6B2; Pharmingen) and streptavidin-Cy5-PE
(RED670; Gibco, Gaithersburg, MD). To visualize the CMP/GMP markers,
the cells were stained with APC-conjugated anti-c-kit (2B8),
Texas-Red-conjugated anti-Sca-1 (E13-161), FITC-conjugated anti-CD34
(RAM 34; Pharmingen), and PE-conjugated anti-CD16/32 (2.4G2). The
progenitor populations were sorted using the FACS Vantage
described above.
Transplantation of hematopoietic cells Purified hematopoietic cells were transplanted into the irradiated host mice via retro-orbital injection. Mice were anesthetized using inhaled Metofane (Mallinckrodt Veterinary, Mundelein, IL). A sterile 22-gauge syringe containing the cells in a total of 100 µL sterile media was inserted into the posterolateral aspect of the orbital cavity and injected into the vasculature. Mice were observed until fully recovered from anesthesia.Preparation and inoculation of aspergillus conidia A clinical isolate of A fumigatus that had caused fatal sinusitis in a patient following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation was plated onto a fresh Sabouraud dextrose agar (BD Biosciences, Cockeysville, MD) plate and incubated for 48 hours at 37°C. Ten milliliters of sterile saline was poured onto the surface of the fungal lawn, which was then scraped gently with an inoculating loop. Conidia were spun down and resuspended in sterile normal saline. The resultant suspension was examined for hyphal elements, and the concentration of conidia was determined for each experiment by both counts and colony growth. Suspensions were kept at 4°C. All mice challenged with A fumigatus received 100 conidia in a total of 150 µL sterile normal saline injected via the lateral tail vein.Fungal culture of target organs Mice were killed on the specified study days. The spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, and brains from each mouse were weighed. A fraction of each tissue was homogenized in 2 mL Dulbecco media in the absence of serum. Tissue homogenate (0.3 mL) was plated on freshly made Sabouraud dextrose agar plates. Colonies were counted on days (D) 3, 5, 7, and 10 following plating. Fragments of each organ were fixed for histologic examination.Preparation and administration of bioluminescent P aeruginosa A modified bioluminescent strain of the bacterium P aeruginosa (XEN5; Xenogen, Alameda, CA) was used in this model of bacterial infection following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The lethal doses for 50% of infected animals (LD50) for the parental and the engineered strains, observed in mouse sepsis and pneumonia models, were not significantly different, indicating that the genetic manipulation did not alter virulence.26-29 For infection of mice, P aeruginosa XEN5 was grown to midlog phase at 37°C with constant rotation, and the concentration of bacteria was estimated spectrophotometrically at 600 nm (OD600). Bacteria were diluted in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; Gibco) for inoculation, and the bacterial concentration in the inoculum was confirmed by determining colony-forming units (CFUs). All mice were matched by weight (18-22 g) and were infected on D+7 after transplantation with 300 to 500 CFUs via intraperitoneal inoculation.Bioluminescent imaging Mice were anesthetized with Avertin (250 µg/kg, administered intraperitoneally). At the time of imaging, animals were placed in a light-tight chamber, and photons emitted from luciferase within the animal and transmitted through the tissue were collected for 5 minutes using an in vivo imaging system employing a cooled charge couple device (CCD) camera (IVIS, Xenogen). This imaging technology was initially developed in a murine model of Salmonella infection.30-32 Using applications in LivingImage software (Xenogen), gray-scale reference images were collected under low light, and pseudocolor images representing the intensity of the bioluminescent signal from the animal were generated in complete darkness. The 2 images were then superimposed. Image composites and annotations were added using additional software: Igor (Wavemetrics, Seattle, WA) and Canvas (Deneba, Miami, FL).Bacterial CFU quantitation Following imaging, the mice were killed and the organs (liver, spleen, heart, and lungs) were harvested. Tissues were homogenized and serially diluted in PBS (10-fold) and plated onto Luria broth (LB) agar to determine CFUs per gram of tissue. The plates were incubated overnight at 37°C, and colonies were counted the following day.G-CSF administration Human recombinant G-CSF (hG-CSF; Amgen, Thousand Oaks, CA) was administered at a dose of 250 µg/kg/d. The experimental mice were weighed after irradiation, and the appropriate dilutions of G-CSF were made with sterile saline. G-CSF was administered subcutaneously beginning on D+1 and following through D+5.In vivo neutrophil subset depletion A single intraperitoneal dose, 1 mg, of the antibody against the neutrophil marker, anti-Gr-1 (RB6-8C5), was administered on D+5. To verify depletion on D+7, immunophenotypic analysis was performed on bone marrow and splenic cells from a representative Gr-1-depleted animal of the HSC-only and HSC+CMP/GMP transplantation groups.Statistical methods All samples from each experiment were analyzed on the same day to minimize variability. Following consultation with Dr Ruby Wong from the Department of Biostatistics at Stanford University, a 2-tailed t test was performed on the log values of groups to compare changes due to graft composition and/or treatment. The nominal values were used in calculating the means and the SEMs.
Experimental model The purpose of these experiments was to determine (1) the role of highly purified myelomonocytic progenitors on the development of innate immune resistance to otherwise lethal doses of A fumigatus or P aeruginosa and (2) whether it is the tissue or blood levels of these effectors that correlates best with protection. To do so, we established a model of radioprotection with modest doses of congenic HSCs wherein there is a significant posttransplantation period of tissue and blood myelomonocytopenia, during which as few as 100 conidia of A fumigatus or 300 to 500 CFUs of P aeruginosa are rapidly lethal. In this background the cotransplantation of CMP/GMP with HSCs leads to a rapid development of myelomonocytic cells with a significant burst that persists for several days. Although the burst size is large, the short residence time of monocytes and neutrophils (< 4 hours)19,33 in the blood results in mice with significant tissue levels but no detectable white blood cells (WBCs) in the blood. Peripheral blood counts determined on D+7 (HSC+CMP/GMP, n = 7; HSCs alone, n = 8) and between D+24 and D+35 (HSC+CMP/GMP, n = 11; HSCs alone, n = 21) showed total counts of less than 1 000 cells per microliter and less than 4 000 cells per microliter in all mice at those time points, respectively. Thus, this mouse model can be used to test the experimental questions stated above.Two separate series of experiments were performed to study whether we could shorten the period of functional neutropenia by cotransplanting CMP/GMP with HSCs. Following transplantation, animals were challenged with lethal doses of 1 of 2 pathogens of clinical importance: the opportunistic fungus A fumigatus or the bacteria P aeruginosa. In each series of experiments, the preparation of the animals was identical. Following lethal irradiation, mice received grafts of either (1) 200 HSCs alone or (2) 200 HSCs with 10 000 CMP and 20 000 GMP. Survival of mice challenged with A fumigatus Survival following intravenous challenge with A fumigatus was dependent on the timing of challenge in relation to lethal irradiation and reconstitution. Mice reconstituted with grafts containing 200 HSCs alone never survived if challenged before D+11. Cotransplantation of CMP (CD16/32loCD34+c-kithiSca-1 lin)
and GMP
(CD16/32+CD34+c-kithiSca-1lin)
with HSCs improved survival if mice were challenged on D+7 (67%), D+9
(100%), or D+11(100%). However, none of these mice survived if
challenged on D+3 (Figure 1). A
fumigatus was routinely cultured from the homogenized spleens,
kidneys, and brains of moribund mice, but no fungus has been isolated
from organs of mice surviving more than 1 week after challenge (data
not shown).
Effect of anti-Gr-1 antibody administration early after transplantation Administration of anti-Gr-1 antibody has been shown to deplete splenic myeloid lineage cells for up to 5 days.34-36 In these experiments, the administration of 1 mg anti-Gr-1 antibody on D+5 resulted in a profound depletion (> 99%) of bone marrow and splenic neutrophils on the day of challenge with A fumigatus (D+7). However, this procedure did not reduce the B- and T-cell populations. In contrast to the 67% survival observed in mice that underwent cotransplantation with HSCs and CMP/GMP and then were challenged with A fumigatus on D+7 (Figure 1), the posttransplantation administration of anti-Gr-1 antibody abrogated this protection, resulting in a significantly decreased survival (10%; Figure 2).
Effect of G-CSF on susceptibility to A fumigatus G-CSF has been shown to mobilize cells into the periphery, accelerate the differentiation of progenitor cells into their mature progeny, and possibly qualitatively enhance function of mature neutrophils.37 In an attempt to shorten the period of susceptibility further in mice that underwent transplantation with HSCs or cotransplantation with HSCs and CMP/GMP, 250 µg/kg human G-CSF was administered intravenously on D+1 through D+5. This dose has been previously demonstrated to accelerate neutrophil recovery following neutropenia in the mouse. The administration of G-CSF failed to improve survival of mice that underwent transplantation with HSCs alone. In contrast, 50% of the mice that underwent cotransplantation with CMP/GMP and received this short course of G-CSF survived at least through D+35, even when infected with A fumigatus on D+3. None of the mice challenged on D+3 that received grafts containing HSCs and CMP/GMP survived in the absence of G-CSF (Figure 3). Therefore, the administration of G-CSF to the CMP/GMP group further shortens the period of susceptibility to invasive aspergillosis.
Effect of CMP/GMP cotransplantation on both donor- and host-derived myeloid cells The appearance of CMP/GMP-derived cells in the spleen correlated with improved survival. Flow cytometric analyses of splenic subpopulations were performed on D+4 and D+7 to analyze the expression of myelomonocytic lineage markers, Mac-1 and Gr-1. Cells expressing high levels of both Mac-1 and Gr-1 are predominantly neutrophils, whereas the Mac-1+Gr-1 cells are
predominantly macrophages.33 Although the paucity of live
splenic cells limits analysis of cellular subpopulations on D+4
after transplantation, no difference in the total number of
cells or percentages of Mac-1+ cells was detected
regardless of graft composition or administration of G-CSF. Analysis on
D+7 revealed significant differences in the splenic myeloid populations
between the different groups. In the absence of G-CSF,
cotransplantation of CMP/GMP with HSCs resulted in increased absolute
numbers of splenocytes, including splenic neutrophils, most of which
were derived from the donor CMP/GMP (67.4%). Analysis of the
CD45+ splenocyte population also confirmed a significant
increase in the percentage of this population that was
Mac-1+Gr-1+ (28%) when compared with mice that
contained grafts containing only HSCs (16%; Table
1).
The administration of G-CSF to mice that had received grafts containing CMP and GMP resulted in a significantly greater number of live splenocytes, CD45+ splenocytes, and Mac-1+Gr-1+ cells when compared with mice that received grafts of HSCs only, with or without G-CSF. However, the absolute number of Mac-1+Gr-1+ in these mice was not significantly different from the HSC+CMP/GMP group that did not receive G-CSF (Table 1). By D+7, less than 1% of all splenocytes were monocytes or macrophages in all mice regardless of graft composition. Analysis of peripheral blood confirmed that all mice were neutropenic with an absolute neutrophil count less than 500/µL through D+35. Thus, blood levels of neutrophils are not responsive to these doses of HSC+CMP/GMP with or without G-CSF. Moreover, blood neutrophil levels do not predict susceptibility to aspergillosis. The observation that mice receiving HSC-only grafts were able to survive challenge if infection was delayed until at least D+11 confirms the finding that peripheral neutropenia does not predict susceptibility to invasive disease. We also noticed a potentially disturbing effect of G-CSF on mice that underwent transplantation with HSCs only. Donor HSC-derived Mac-1+Gr-1+ cells decreased in G-CSF treated mice compared with HSCs alone. This deserves more study to test if this is organ specific and if it somehow could compromise the HSC-restored host. Survival following lethal challenge with Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection by P aeruginosa has a close association with neutropenia. In most series, P aeruginosa infection is frequently associated with a lethal outcome. Unlike fungal disease, patients are at risk for infection by P aeruginosa even after only brief periods of neutropenia. The XEN5 strain of P aeruginosa constitutively expresses a heterodimeric bacterial luciferase and the enzymes necessary for substrate biosynthesis from the lux operon originally obtained from the bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens. Approximately 300 CFUs of P aeruginosa XEN5 were injected intraperitoneally into mice on D+7 after transplantation. In a series of 3 experiments, 75% of mice that received grafts containing CMP/GMP in addition to HSCs survived. This was in contrast to only 10% of mice that received grafts containing only HSCs (Figure 4). All mice except for one in the HSC group that survived for 72 hours after infection remained alive for the remainder of the 35-day observation period.
Bioluminescent imaging to determine tissue bacterial distribution and CFU determination Mice were imaged at 18 hours after infection with P aeruginosa XEN5 using the IVIS system. The bioluminescent images in Figure 5 demonstrate the ability to monitor the protection provided by grafts of HSCs only or HSC+CMP/GMP against P aeruginosa in real time. The bioluminescent signals of 5 moribund infected mice that received grafts of HSCs alone contrasted the lack of detectable signal in contemporaneous images from 5 infected littermates that received a graft containing CMP/GMP (Figure 5). The bioluminescent images of the mice display the relative location and concentration of luminescent bacteria in vivo. After imaging, distribution of P aeruginosa XEN5 in the moribund mice and healthy mice was confirmed by CFU determination in liver, spleen, lung, and heart tissues harvested at 18 hours after infection (Table 2). Nine of the 10 mice in the HSC group were moribund compared with 1 of the 5 mice in the CMP/GMP group. The tissue bacterial load correlated with clinically apparent illness and the bioluminescent signals in each mouse. Even at this early time point, there was a 1- to 3-log decrease in the tissue bacterial load of the mice that received CMP/GMP when compared with the mice that received HSCs alone. No bacteria were detected in any mouse that survived and was without evidence of illness 72 hours after infection (data not shown). These results confirm the rapid proliferation and dissemination of P aeruginosa. Animals that were able to clear the pathogen appeared to do so shortly after infection (< 18 hours).
In these studies we demonstrated that cotransplantation of highly purified myeloid-restricted progenitors, CMP and GMP, along with highly purified HSCs enhanced reconstitution of a functional myeloid response to a lethal challenge with either the opportunistic fungus A fumigatus or the bacterium P aeruginosa. The improvement in survival was correlated with a significant reduction in or an elimination of organisms. Histologic examination confirmed the elimination of organisms in surviving mice and dissemination of either fungal or bacterial organisms in mice that succumbed to the pathogen challenge. In these studies, the routes of administration of the pathogens were selected deliberately. The natural reservoirs for P aeruginosa are water and the gastrointestinal tract. This bacterium most commonly enters the body via defects in the integrity of the gastrointestinal tract or via an intravenous catheter, and bacteremia rapidly ensues. Therefore, the distribution of P aeruginosa following intraperitoneal injection approximates that observed in the initial phases of systemic disease following natural infection. In contrast, A fumigatus is a ubiquitous fungus. The most common route of inoculation is via inhalation of the fungal conidia (spores). In the immunocompromised host, sporulation and subsequent formation of hyphal forms may result in an angioinvasive infection. The primary immune effectors against Aspergillus spp depend on the developmental form of the fungus. Pulmonary macrophages are primarily responsible for clearance of inhaled conidia.1 In contrast, neutrophils appear to be necessary for clearance of the newly budding conidia and the branching, invasive hyphal forms.1 Direct inoculation or introduction via an intravenous catheter is rarely seen. Nevertheless, conidia were administered via intravenous injection to ensure challenge with a precise number of conidia, which allowed us to determine the potential benefit of enhanced myeloid reconstitution against invasive hyphae in the absence of potentially confounding influence of alveolar macrophages. Histologic analysis confirmed that, within 72 hours, the conidia disseminated and resulted in invasive hyphal forms throughout the spleen, liver, kidneys, brain, and lungs. In the natural course of invasive aspergillosis in an immunocompromised host, it is uncommon to observe a profound local neutrophil infiltration even when infection is successfully resolved. Despite this fact, numerous investigators have confirmed the crucial role of the myeloid cell in protecting against invasive aspergillosis. Significant neutrophilic infiltration was not seen in histologic evaluation of tissue from moribund or healthy mice after infection in this study. Similarly, although neutrophilic infiltration may be seen in focal human infection due to P aeruginosa, such infiltration is not typically seen in disseminated or overwhelming infection. The histologic examination of the organs from moribund mice in this study revealed collections of Gram-negative rods without neutrophilic infiltration. Because recovery from infection due to A fumigatus and P aeruginosa can occur in the absence of visible immune response, such histologic evaluation does not correlate with clinical outcome or negate the demonstrated role of the neutrophil. The systemic distribution of P aeruginosa was noninvasively assessed using in vivo bioluminescent imaging in the transplantation models. This imaging modality can be used to monitor disease progression without the need to kill the animals. Observations made by imaging were confirmed by determining CFUs at selected time points. In the CMP/GMP graft group, it was apparent at 18 hours after infection which mice were likely to survive the infection and which were destined to succumb to infection. The intensity of the bioluminescent signal correlated with clinically apparent illness and survival of the mice. The prediction of one moribund mouse in the CMP/GMP grafted out of 5 (80% survival) correlated well with the previous data obtained by survival counts (75% survival). The sensitivity of the imaging permitted detection of low bacterial loads in the tissues. In this series of experiments, the bacterial tissue burden correlated with the degree and distribution of photons as detected by in vivo imaging. Based on the measurement of bacterial CFUs in this model using mice of the C57BL/Ka strain, 105 CFUs per gram of tissue could be detected by the bioluminescent technique. An important finding in these studies is that peripheral blood neutropenia alone does not predict risk of death due to either of these pathogens. The cotransplantation of CMP/GMP along with HSCs did not result in detectable progenitor-derived blood neutrophils at any time point, whereas CMP/GMP-derived myeloid cells could be found in the spleen despite the fact that the mice remained neutropenic. As early as D+7 after transplantation, it was determined that the cells accounting for the increase in the absolute number of splenic myeloid cells were derived from the cotransplanted CMP and GMP. Furthermore, antibody depletion of these splenic myeloid cells with anti-Gr-1 antibody resulted in the elimination of the enhanced innate immunity resulting from the cotransplantation of myelomonocytic progenitor cells. While other tissues were not specifically studied, splenic reconstitution likely reflects that which occurs in other hematopoietic tissue in the mouse. These findings suggest that quantitation of live cells in the splenic or peripheral blood compartments does not provide adequate measure of the available Gr-1+ effector cells. The administration of G-CSF following cotransplantation resulted in the shortening of the period of susceptibility to lethal challenge with A fumigatus. Half of the mice that underwent cotransplantation with CMP/GMP and subsequently administered G-CSF survived challenge on D+3 after transplantation. In contrast, there was a 100% mortality in similarly challenged mice that underwent cotransplantation that had not received G-CSF. Although the shortening of the period of susceptibility following G-CSF administration was not accompanied by an increase in the absolute number of splenic myeloid cells, there was a significant increase in the survival of animals following lethal infection. The increased survival may be due to the enhancement of neutrophil differentiation, function, and survival following administration of G-CSF.38,39 These findings suggest that a relatively small increase in either the number of neutrophils or an enhancement of the function of neutrophils in tissue improved destruction of fungal hyphae. Despite decades of attempts, transfusion of donor neutrophils mobilized by the administration of corticosteroids has never been shown to provide durable protection against fungal or bacterial infections. This is not surprising because these cells have a very short life span. Similarly, although administration of G-CSF or GM-CSF has been shown to decrease the duration of neutropenia following chemotherapy, there is no proven efficacy of these therapies in the prevention or treatment of infectious complications.20 The efficacy of these therapies may well be limited by the significant depletion of the myeloid pools available for mobilization and differentiation following myelotoxic chemotherapy.40,41 Our data demonstrate that the supplementation of the myeloid progenitor cells by cotransplantation of CMP/GMP with HSCs, with or without the concomitant administration of G-CSF, can prevent the establishment of lethal, invasive fungal disease. There are potential therapeutic implications of these findings. The subsets of CMP and GMP can be mobilized into the peripheral blood of mice, and we have preliminary evidence that human CMP/GMP can also be mobilized into the peripheral blood following administration of cyclophosphamide and G-CSF. Thus, it may be possible to engineer grafts that contain HSCs and CMP/GMP but are devoid of T cells for allotransplantation and devoid of malignant cells for autotransplantation. Of potentially more widespread application is donor transfusion of these myeloid progenitors following chemotherapeutic regimens or myeloablative preparative regimens for HCT. This would be expected to decrease significantly the risk of infectious complications due to neutropenia. We are currently testing the hypothesis that these transfusions could be fully allogeneic.
We are grateful to Libuse Jerabek and Lucino Hidalgo for their assistance in executing the experiments and Motonari Kondo, Jos Domen, and Judith Shizuru for their invaluable advice.
Submitted May 28, 2002; accepted July 22, 2002.
Prepublished online as Blood First Edition Paper, August 8, 2002; DOI 10.1182/blood-2002-05-1552.
Supported by National Institutes of Health grants NIAID 1K11A101197, CA42551, HD37543, 1RO1CA86017, 5T32 DK07762, 2P01CA49605 American Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (ASBMT)/Roche New Investigator Award, and by unrestricted gifts from the Mary L. Johnson and Hess Research Funds, and Center for Clinical Immunology at Stanford.
The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. Therefore, and solely to indicate this fact, this article is hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. section 1734.
Reprints: Janice M. Y. Brown, Divisions of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, Stanford University Medical Center, H1353, 300 Pasteur Dr, Stanford, CA; e-mail: wesbrown{at}stanford.edu.
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© 2002 by The American Society of Hematology.
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  J. Domen, M. Wahedi, E. Danenberg, S. Smith-Berdan, J. Christensen, T. Fong, and J. Brown Neutropenic Mice Can Be Protected from Fungus Infection by Ex Vivo Expanded Allogeneic Myeloid Progenitors. Blood (ASH Annual Meeting Abstracts), November 16, 2005; 106(11): 3038 - 3038. [Abstract]
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J. R. Wingard, W. G. Nichols, and G. B. McDonald Supportive Care Hematology, January 1, 2004; 2004(1): 372 - 389. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Bozza, K. Perruccio, C. Montagnoli, R. Gaziano, S. Bellocchio, E. Burchielli, G. Nkwanyuo, L. Pitzurra, A. Velardi, and L. Romani A dendritic cell vaccine against invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic hematopoietic transplantation Blood, November 15, 2003; 102(10): 3807 - 3814. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Arber, A. BitMansour, T. E. Sparer, J. P. Higgins, E. S. Mocarski, I. L. Weissman, J. A. Shizuru, and J. M. Y. Brown Common lymphoid progenitors rapidly engraft and protect against lethal murine cytomegalovirus infection after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation Blood, July 15, 2003; 102(2): 421 - 428. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Top
Abstract
Introduction
naturally occurring or
arising as a result of therapy
, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor for priming leukocyte-mediated hyphal damage of opportunistic fungal pathogens.
J Infect Dis.
1999;179:1038-1041