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Blood, Vol. 92 No. 1 (July 1), 1998:
pp. 291-299
By
From the Laboratory of Viral Immunology, Laboratory of Virology,
Centre de recherche en Rhumatologie et Immunologie, Laboratory of
Infectiology, Centre de Recherche du CHUL, Université Laval,
Québec, Canada.
The role of neutrophils during Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is
not known. Disruption of the initial and nonspecific immune response
may favor the spread of EBV infection. We have previously shown that
EBV interacts with human neutrophils and modulates protein expression.
In this study we have investigated the ability of EBV to infect
neutrophils. Electron microscopy studies showed penetration of virus
and its subsequent localization to the nucleus. The presence of viral
genomes in isolated nuclei from neutrophils was also shown by
polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Expression of viral transcripts like
EBNA-2 (Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen-2) and ZEBRA (BamHI Z EBV
replication activator) was not detected by reverse transcriptase
(RT)-PCR, suggesting that EBV does not seem to establish a latent or a
lytic infection in neutrophils. However, at 20 hours post-EBV
infection, 77% of cells were apoptotic as compared to 22% in
uninfected cell cultures, as evaluated by flow cytometry. This
EBV-induced apoptosis was prevented by the addition of
granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor to the cell cultures.
Apoptotic cell death seems to implicate the Fas/Fas ligand (L) pathway,
as reflected by an increase of Fas/Fas L expression on neutrophils
treated with EBV and an increase of soluble Fas L, which may function
in an autocrine/paracrine pathway to mediate cell death. Lastly, EBV
genome was detected from neutrophils of infectious mononucleosis (IM)
patients in contrast to neutrophils obtained from healthy
EBV-seropositive donors. Our findings on the interactions of EBV with
neutrophils will then provide new insights on the immunosuppressive
effects associated with EBV infection.
IMMUNE RESPONSE GENERATED against viral
infections involves both nonspecific and antigen-specific mechanisms.
Nonspecific defense mechanisms, delivered by macrophages and
neutrophils, are rapidly inducible and play a crucial role during the
early phase of viral infections. In fact, the number and distribution of neutrophils throughout the body ensures that they are often the
first leukocytes to encounter invading organisms. The immune functions
of neutrophils in the control of infectious agents are mainly
associated with phagocytosis and the production of degradative enzymes
and oxygen-free radicals. Neutrophils can also synthesize and release
several immunoregulatory proteins after stimulation with different
agonists.1,2 Therefore, impairment of these functions may
partially suppress the immune response. The role of neutrophils in the
control of viral infection is not well documented. It was previously
reported that human immunodeficiency virus, cytomegalovirus, and
influenza virus can interact with phagocytes, resulting in a decrease
in natural immunity.3-7 However, the outcome of an
interaction between Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and neutrophils has yet to
be studied.
EBV, which belongs to the family of "Herpesviridae," is
known to infect human B lymphocytes and epithelial cells of the
oropharynx through the CD21 receptor.8 However, growing
evidence suggests that EBV may interact with a wider range of cells
than previously believed. For example, several reports have described
patients with EBV-genome-positive T-cell lymphoma.8 EBV
was also found to bind and infect human thymocytes and T-cell lines
HSB-2, Jurkat, and HPB-ALL.9-12 Furthermore, it was
observed that EBV can bind to and activate CD8+ peripheral
T lymphocytes and monocytes without penetrating the cells.13-15 These studies showed that EBV binding involved
a ligand distinct from CD21, suggesting the existence of an additional EBV receptor as previously proposed by others.11,16
We have recently reported that EBV can bind to neutrophils and cause
cellular aggregation and protein synthesis.17,18 Here we
report the penetration of EBV into neutrophils and its subsequent localization to the nucleus. Although no evidence is supportive of the
establishment of a latent or a lytic infection, we observed that EBV
induces apoptosis in human neutrophils. This effect of EBV on
neutrophils may represent an alternative mechanism by which the virus
suppresses the immune response.
Neutrophil isolation.
Neutrophils were isolated from venous blood obtained from normal
healthy volunteers using Ficoll-Hypaque density
centrifugation (Pharmacia-Biotech Inc, Baie d'Urfé, Canada) as
previously described.18 All neutrophil preparations
contained fewer than 1% monocytes as determined by monoesterase
staining and less than 0.3% of B and T lymphocytes, as evaluated by
cytometry using anti-CD2, anti-CD3, and anti-CD19 monoclonal antibodies
(MoAbs) (Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA). Viability, estimated by the
trypan blue-dye exclusion procedure, was greater than 99% in all
preparations.
General incubation conditions.
Neutrophils were incubated in Hank's balanced saline solution (HBSS)
(GIBCO-BRL, Burlington, Ontario, Canada) supplemented with 1% of
heat-inactivated autologous plasma and 10 mmol/L of HEPES buffer for
all experiments, except for studies of apoptotic cells which were
performed in RPMI-1640 supplemented with 10% of heat-inactivated fetal
bovine serum (FBS). Culture medium tested for the presence of endotoxin
by the limulus amebocyte assays (Sigma, St Louis, MO) contained less
than 10 pg/mL of contaminating endotoxins. Neutrophils were incubated
at specified cells densities with either infectious EBV or 3 nmol/L
recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
(GM-CSF; provided by Genetics Institute, Boston, MA) for the indicated
times.
Virus preparations.
Viral preparations of EBV strain B95-8 were produced as previously
described.18 Briefly, B95-8 cells (which were
mycoplasma-free tested) were grown in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented
with 10% heat-inactivated FBS. When the viability of cell cultures
reached 20% or less, as determined by trypan blue-dye exclusion,
cell-free culture supernatants were obtained and filtered through a
0.45-µm pore size filter, and viral particles were purified by
differential ultracentrifugation. Virus stocks were resuspended in
RPMI-1640, aliquoted, and stored at Electron microscopy.
Neutrophils were resuspended in cold HBSS and incubated with EBV at
4°C for 5 to 15 minutes to allow binding to the cell surface. Virus-bound cells were then cultured at 37°C for varying time periods and processed for electron microscopy examination as
described.19,20 Briefly, cells were fixed for 1 hour in
1.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 mol/L cacodylate buffer pH 7.3. After
fixation, cells were pelleted and pre-embedded in 20% bovine serum
albumin (BSA), polymerized with 25% glutaraldehyde, and cut in one
millimeter3. The blocks were rinsed with
buffer, postfixed in 1% buffered osmium tetroxyde, treated with 0.1%
buffered tannic acid, and stained in bloc with 2% ethanolic uranyl
acetate. The neutrophils were dehydrated through a graded series of
ethanol and propylene oxide, and embedded in Epon 812 (JBem Services
Inc, Quebec, Canada). Ultrathin sections were cut with a diamond knife
on an Ultracut S ultramicrotome (Leica Canada Inc, Montreal, Canada)
and mounted on 200 mesh copper grids. The sections were stained with
2% uranyl acetate and 0.5% lead citrate, and examined with a Jeol
1010 electron microscope (Jeol Canada Inc, St Hubert, Canada).
DNA isolation and Southern blot analysis.
Neutrophils were incubated for various periods of time in the presence
or absence of EBV and then washed three times with HBSS to remove
residual virus. For Southern blotting analysis, DNA was extracted as
described.21 RNA was removed by RNASE ONE (Promega,
Madison, WI) treatment and DNA was digested with BamHI. Ten
micrograms of DNA cells were loaded onto a 0.6% agarose gel and
size-fractionated by electrophoresis. Transfer onto HYBOND-N membrane
(Amersham Canada Limited, Oakville, Ontario, Canada) was performed by
capillary diffusion in 10× sodium saline citrate (SSC) overnight. After prehybridization the membranes were
hybridized with random-primed 32P-labeled probes in 50%
formamide overnight at 42°C. The membranes were then washed and
exposed to Kodak X-OMAT films (Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY) with an
intensifying screen at Preparation of nuclei.
Neutrophils (10 × 106 cells/mL) were pretreated with
cytochalasin B (an inhibitor of phagocytosis) (Sigma, Oakville,
Ontario, Canada) at 10 µmol/L and infected with EBV. After 10 hours
of culture, cells were washed and resuspended in ice-cold buffer containing sucrose 0.25 mol/L, HEPES 10 mmol/L, EGTA 1 mmol/L, and
protease inhibitors, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) 1 mmol/L,
aprotinin and leupeptin 100 µg/mL. Nuclei were then extracted as
previously described.23 Briefly, neutrophils were sonicated
on ice (3 × 20 seconds, at a power setting of 2 and 60% duty
cycle) in a Branson Ultrasonic Processor (VWR/Canlab, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada). Sonicates were centrifuged at 12,000g, 10 minutes,
4°C. The corresponding pellets referred to nuclei of neutrophils
and the supernatants referred to cellular membranes and cytosols.
Nuclei were resuspended in HBSS in DNA was extracted as described
above. The presence of EBV genome was evaluated by PCR using the
BamHI W primers detailed in the previous section.
Detection of EBV genome in neutrophils from infectious mononucleosis
(IM) patients.
Neutrophils from IM patients were isolated and DNA was extracted as
described above. Neutrophils obtained from healthy EBV-seropositive donors were also used as negative controls. The presence of EBV genome
was evaluated by PCR analysis using the BamHI-W primers detailed in the previous section. PCR was performed in Perkin Elmer
Gene Amp 9600 (Cetus, Emeryville, CA) for 35 cycles (denaturation: 60 seconds at 95°C, ramp 60 seconds; annealing: 30 seconds at 55°C
, ramp 30 seconds; and extension: 30 seconds at 72°C, ramp 60 seconds). Amplified product was detected by hybridization to an
32P-end-labeled oligonucleotide probe:
5 RNA isolation and RT-PCR amplification.
Unstimulated cells and EBV-treated neutrophils (50 × 106 cells/mL) were cultured for various time periods before
RNA extraction. Total RNA was extracted by the TRIzol Reagent
(GIBCO-BRL) method according to the manufacturer. First-strand cDNA was
made using Moloney-murine leukemia virus (M-MLV) reverse transcriptase
(RT) using downstream primer. For EBNA-2 detection, the downstream primer was 5 Analysis of apoptotic cells by flow cytometry.
After EBV treatment, we identified living, apoptotic, and necrotic
cells based on the differences in their stainability with propidium
iodide (PI) and Hoechst (HO) 33342. Analyses were done by flow
cytometry based on previously described procedures.26,27 Briefly, human neutrophils (2 × 106/mL) were cultured
in RPMI-1640 containing 10% FBS in the presence or absence of EBV and
obtained at specified times. Cells were washed in phosphate-buffered
saline (PBS) (pH 7.4), and 50 µL of PI (20 µg/mL) was added to the
pellet. Tubes were mixed and kept on ice for 30 minutes. After this
incubation time, 950 µL of 25% ethanol and 25 µL of HO 33342 (112 µg/mL) were added to each tube. Samples were vortexed and kept at
4°C in the dark for 4 hours. Cells were analyzed by cytofluorometry
(EPICS ELITE ESP; Coulter, Hialeah, FL) with the following settings:
the fluorescence emission was first filtered through a 488-nm dichroic
filter with the <488-nm fluorescence filtered through a 450-nm
long-pass filter (HO33342 fluorescence). The >488-nm fluorescence was
filtered through a 515-nm long-pass filter and a 560-nm dichroic filter with the >560-nm fluorescence filtered through 610-nm long-pass filters (PI fluorescence). Analyses were performed from the samples of
10,000 cells. When indicated, cells were pretreated with GM-CSF (3 nmol/L) for 3 hours before EBV infection.
Detection of Fas and Fas L expression.
Neutrophils (3 × 106 cells/mL) were cultured in the
presence or absence of EBV during 20 hours and obtained for
immunofluorescence staining. Cell-surface expression of Fas and Fas L
was assayed by flow cytometry using murine MoAbs anti-human Fas UB2
(Immunotech, Burlington, Ontario, Canada) and anti-human Fas L NOK-1
(PharMingen, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada) for primary straining and
revealed with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated purified
F(ab Detection of soluble Fas L.
Cell-free supernatants from unstimulated and EBV-treated neutrophils
(10 × 106 cells/mL) were obtained at indicated times
and tested for the release of soluble Fas L using an enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (Medicorp, Montreal, Canada).
Statistical analysis.
Statistical analyses were performed using Student's paired
(two-tailed) t-test, and significance was attained at
P < .05.
EBV penetration in neutrophils.
We have previously reported that EBV binds to human neutrophils
(approximately 30%) and recognizes a receptor distinct from the CD21
antigen.17 Such interactions result in cellular aggregation and in de novo protein synthesis by neutrophils. Here we have examined
the association between neutrophils and EBV by electron microscopy.
Viral particles were incubated with neutrophils at 4°C to allow
binding and then at 37°C for various periods of time. EBV
adsorption to the outer cell membrane of neutrophils could be observed
(Fig 1A and insert). Fully mature virions,
with electron dense core and bilayer membrane, were found associated to
the cells. In Fig 1B, a virion is engaged in internalization, as seen by the fusion of the viral envelope with the cellular membrane. Nucleocapsids of EBV were observed later in the cytoplasma and in the
nuclei of neutrophils (Fig 1C and D). Chromatin was condensed following
EBV localization to the nucleus and this process was observed between 5 to 15 minutes of incubation. Some EBV particles were also observed in
cellular vacuoles, showing that viral particles were also phagocytized
by neutrophils (data not shown). Virions within the neutrophils were
identical to those seen in the cytoplasma of B95-8 cell line. The
percentage of EBV-infected neutrophils evaluated by electron microscopy
was similar to the one observed in binding assay.17
Detection of EBV genome in isolated nuclei obtained from neutrophils.
To further confirm the results obtained by electron microscopy, we
first examined the presence of EBV genome in neutrophils by Southern
blotting analysis (Fig 2A). We used a
BamHI W fragment from the internal repeats of EBV genome.
Neutrophils were treated with EBV for different periods of time (from
15 minutes to 24 hours). Expression of EBV fragments was detectable at
2 hours postinfection and increased at 24 hours postinfection,
suggesting that the number of copies of viral genome or the number of
infected neutrophils is increasing with time. Because viral
internalization can occur by phagocytosis, we performed an additional
experiment to confirm the presence of EBV in the nuclei of neutrophils.
Cells were first pretreated with cytochalasin B, an inhibitor of
phagocytosis, then treated with EBV. At 10 hours postinfection, DNA was
extracted from isolated nuclei and tested for EBV genomic DNA by PCR.
As shown in Fig 2C, EBV genome was detected in isolated nuclei from neutrophils treated with EBV, suggesting that EBV can penetrate neutrophils independently of phagocytosis. As negative control, when
P815 cells (murine mastocytoma exerting phagocytosis) were pretreated
with cytochalasin B before EBV treatment, no specific amplification of
EBV DNA was detected in isolated nuclei under the same experimental
conditions (data not shown).
Transcription of EBNA-2 or BZLF-1 was not detected in EBV-infected
neutrophils.
We next investigated the expression of two viral transcripts in
neutrophils. First, we amplified by PCR the early lytic BZLF-1 gene
that encodes the Zebra protein and second, the EBNA-2 transcript that
is associated with EBV immortalization. In both cases, no transcripts
were detected in EBV-infected neutrophils in contrast to the positive
controls B95-8 and Raji cells (Fig 3).
Neutrophils from IM patients are infected by EBV.
Because EBV was found to infect human neutrophils in vitro, we tested
for the presence of EBV genome in neutrophils from IM patients. This
was performed by PCR amplification of a specific region of the EBV
genome using DNA isolated from neutrophils of EBV patients.
Interestingly, EBV genome was detected in neutrophils from EBV patients
in contrast to healthy seropositive donors
(Fig 4).
EBV induces apoptosis in neutrophils.
Because EBV can induce or inhibit apoptosis in mononuclear
cells28,29 and the fact that neutropenia is observed in the majority of IM patients, we next investigated the effects of EBV on
neutrophil viability. This was performed by flow cytometric analysis
using the dye HO33342 and DNA intercalating dye propidium iodine. This
technique allows the discrimination between necrotic, apoptotic, and
viable cells. Viable cells can be divided into three subpopulations,
V1, V2, and V3, based on their
degree of permeability to PI. Cells in V1 are less
permeable to PI than cells in V2, and cells in
V2 are less permeable to PI than cells in V3.
Permeability is inversely proportional to cellular viability. The more
permeable cells, found in the V3 area, are thus closer to
death than cells located in the V1 or V2
regions. In one representative experiment, after 20 hours of culture,
neutrophils treated with EBV showed 77% apoptotic cells as compared to
22% for unstimulated cells (Fig 5).
Necrotic neutrophils were not detected at 20 hours postinfection,
suggesting that EBV causes neutrophil death by apoptosis rather than
necrosis. In addition, cells in V3 area were only detected
in EBV-treated cultures, indicating a decrease in cellular viability.
These results were consistently observed throughout several
experiments. The apoptotic process induced by EBV in neutrophils was
confirmed by two other techniques, eg, condensation of chromatin
(percent of apoptotic cells: control, 31% ± 6%; EBV-treated
cells, 59% ± 10%; P < .05; n = 3) and DNA fragmentation
studies (data not shown).
Kinetics of neutrophil cell death induced by EBV.
Human neutrophils were incubated with or without EBV for increasing
period of time and apoptosis was assessed by flow cytometric method
(Fig 6). The number of apoptotic cells
significantly increased after 20 hours in EBV-infected cell cultures as
compared with unstimulated neutrophils.
GM-CSF protects neutrophils against apoptosis induced by EBV.
GM-CSF is known to prolong survival of human neutrophils in
vitro.30 To determine if this effect was also protective on EBV-treated neutrophils, we incubated unstimulated and EBV-infected neutrophils with or without GM-CSF. After 20 hours of incubation, the
percentage of apoptotic cells was evaluated by flow cytometry. As shown
in Table 1, treatment with GM-CSF strongly
suppressed the ability of EBV to induce neutrophil apoptosis. In fact,
the number of apoptotic cells in EBV-treated cultures was similar to
that from unstimulated cell cultures.
EBV increases the expression of Fas and Fas L on neutrophils.
The Fas/Fas L system is an important cellular pathway mediating
apoptosis in neutrophils.31 We therefore evaluated the
effects of EBV on the expression of Fas/Fas L antigens on neutrophils. As shown in Fig 7, the expression of Fas
and Fas L was significantly increased on neutrophils infected by EBV
(93% and 19%, respectively). The time course of appearance of Fas and
Fas L antigens was similar to the kinetics of neutrophil death induced
by EBV. Furthermore, the release of soluble Fas L was also increased in
culture supernatants of EBV-treated neutrophils
(Fig 8). These results suggest that EBV may
induce apoptosis in neutrophils via the Fas/Fas L system and that
soluble Fas L may function in an autocrine/paracrine pathway to mediate
cell death.
As a key element in the nonspecific defense mechanism, neutrophils are
likely to encounter invading agents such as viruses. Two of the major
functions of neutrophils are phagocytosis and the release of
inflammatory mediators. Growing evidence shows the ability of
neutrophils to induce inflammatory response by releasing several
immunoregulatory cytokines upon stimulation.1,2 In this
study we show that EBV infects and induces apoptosis of human
neutrophils, which could disrupt the initial defense against EBV
infection. Electron microscopy studies show contact between EBV and
neutrophils, as well as fusion between cellular and viral membranes.
These results support a previous study17 showing that EBV
binds to a surface membrane antigen on neutrophil via a receptor
different from CD21. This is also in agreement with other studies using
T-cell lines.11,16 The increased expression of EBV
fragments in neutrophils over time either may suggest that EBV can
replicate in these cells or that more neutrophils get infected over
time. However, we cannot overlook that a number of viral particles can
also enter into neutrophils by phagocytosis. In this regard, the
results obtained with isolated nuclei from EBV-infected neutrophils are
of particular interest. In fact, the presence of EBV genome in these
nuclei indicates that EBV can penetrate into neutrophils without being
phagocytosed because all cell cultures were treated with cytochalasin
B, an inhibitor of phagocytosis. Taken together, the results indicate
that although some EBV particles are phagocytosed, others penetrate
into neutrophils via an alternate route. Since EBV can penetrate
neutrophils, we looked for the synthesis of viral transcripts EBNA-2
and ZEBRA. EBNA-2, readily detectable in the first 24 hours of
infection,32 is required for the initiation of lymphocyte
immortalization and is an essential transactivator of viral gene
expression.33,34 ZEBRA is a key immediate-early protein
essential for lytic cell induction and is synthesized during the first
hours postinfection.35,36 None of these two genes were
found to be expressed in EBV-infected neutrophils, suggesting an
abortive type of infection. However, because EBV can encode several
other genes, further studies are required to identify viral genes
expressed in EBV-infected neutrophils.
Submitted July 30, 1997;
accepted February 17, 1998.
We thank Pierrette Côté for her excellent secretarial
assistance. We also thank Dr Robert Delage, who provided blood samples from IM patients.
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Induction |
Abstract
Introduction
Abstract
80°C until use. Viral
titers were measured and evaluated at 107 transforming
units (TFU/mL).
GCAGTAACAGGTAATCTCTG 3
-actin cDNA was used as internal control to
demonstrate equal concentration of RNA in each sample. Sequences of
primers used have been previously reported.
