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 Previous Article | Table of Contents | Next Article 
Blood, Vol. 92 No. 6 (September 15), 1998:
pp. 2003-2011
Leukemic Predisposition of Mice Transplanted With Gene-Modified
Hematopoietic Precursors Expressing flt3 Ligand
By
Teresa S. Hawley,
Andrew Z.C. Fong,
Henrik Griesser,
Stewart D. Lyman, and
Robert G. Hawley
From the Oncology Gene Therapy Program, The Toronto Hospital, and the
Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada; the Institute of Pathology, University of
Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; and Immunex Corp, Seattle, WA.
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ABSTRACT |
flt3/flk-2 ligand (FL) is a cytokine that exhibits synergistic
activities in combination with other early acting factors on subpopulations of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. In addition to
normal hematopoietic precursors, expression of the FL receptor, flt3R,
has been frequently demonstrated on the blast cells from patients with
acute B-lineage lymphoblastic, myeloid, and biphenotypic (also known as
hybrid or mixed) leukemias. Because many of these leukemic cell types
express FL, the possibility has been raised that altered regulation of
FL-mediated signaling might contribute to malignant transformation or
expansion of the leukemic clone. In humans, FL is predominantly
synthesized as a transmembrane protein that must undergo proteolytic
cleavage to generate a soluble form. To investigate the consequences of
constitutively expressing the analogous murine FL isoform in murine
hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, lethally irradiated syngeneic mice
(18 total) were engrafted with post-5-fluorouracil-treated bone
marrow cells transduced ex vivo with a recombinant retroviral vector
(MSCV-FL) encoding murine transmembrane FL. Compared with control mice
(8 total), MSCV-FL mice presented with a mild macrocytic anemia but
were otherwise healthy for more than 5 months posttransplant (until 22 weeks). Subsequently, all primary MSCV-FL recipients observed for up to
1 year plus 83% (20 of 24) of secondary MSCV-FL animals that had
received bone marrow from asymptomatic primary hosts reconstituted for
4 to 5 months developed transplantable hematologic malignancies (with
mean latency periods of 30 and 23 weeks, respectively). Phenotypic and
molecular analyses indicated that the tumor cells expressed flt3R and
displayed B-cell and/or myeloid markers. These data,
establishing that dysregulated expression of FL in primitive hematopoietic cells predisposes flt3R+ precursors to
leukemic transformation, underscore a potential role of this
cytokine/receptor combination in certain human leukemias.
© 1998 by The American Society of Hematology.
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INTRODUCTION |
THE flt3 RECEPTOR (flt3R; also called
flk-2) is closely related to two other receptors expressed on
hematopoietic cells, c-kit and c-fms.1-4 Together with the
two platelet-derived growth factor receptors, these proteins make up
the class III family of receptor tyrosine kinases that have five
Ig-like domains in their extracellular region and an interrupted kinase
domain in their intracellular region.5 Within the
hematopoietic system, c-kit is expressed primarily on primitive
precursors and mast cells, whereas expression of c-fms is limited to
the monocytic lineage.3,4 By comparison, expression of
flt3R appears to be predominantly restricted to the stem/progenitor
cell compartment1,2 (for review, see Lyman and
Jacobsen6).
The ligand for flt3R (FL) exists in both membrane-bound and soluble
forms.6-9 The most abundant isoform of human FL is a type I
transmembrane protein that is structurally related to c-kit ligand (KL;
also known as mast cell growth factor, Steel factor, and stem cell
factor) and to CSF-1 (also known as macrophage colony-stimulating factor), the ligand for c-fms.3,4 Consistent with the
pattern of expression of their respective receptors, KL has been
demonstrated to stimulate multilineage hematopoiesis and CSF-1 has been
shown to be important in the regulation of monocyte
development3,4; the hematopoietic actions of FL overlap
with those of KL, with FL appearing to be more critical for generation
of B-cell progeny. This property and its lack of activity on mast cells
are two key features differentiating FL from KL.6,7,9-11
Autocrine stimulation of hematopoietic growth factor signaling pathways
has been postulated as a mechanism for the selective expansion of the
neoplastic clone in some types of leukemia.12,13 In
contrast to c-kit and c-fms, which have generally been detected only on
myeloid leukemias, flt3R is expressed in acute leukemias of lymphoid
and myeloid origin, including B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia
(B-ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and biphenotypic leukemia
(expressing both lymphoid and myeloid markers).14 Because many human leukemic cell lines express FL,15,16 a role of
the FL/flt3R cytokine/receptor interaction in the leukemic process has
been suggested.17,18 Recently, it was reported that
retroviral-mediated overexpression of the human FL gene in the
flt3R+ leukemic cell line OCI-AML-5 enhanced cell
proliferation.19 In this study, we investigated the effect
of ectopically expressing the murine FL gene in primary murine bone
marrow precursors engrafted into lethally irradiated recipients. We
show that establishment of an FL-flt3R autocrine signaling loop is
associated with the development of B-lymphoid and myeloid leukemias as
well as biphenotypic leukemias coexpressing B-cell and myeloid markers.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
MSCV-FL and control MSCV retroviral vectors.
The murine FL clone 6C cDNA encoding the transmembrane isoform of the
protein,7 which had been subcloned into the Sal I site of pBluescript SK- (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA), was excised as a
0.9-kb Xho I-EcoRI fragment and inserted between the
corresponding sites of the polylinker in the MSCV v2.2 retroviral
vector such that it was placed under the transcriptional control of the
viral long terminal repeat (LTR).20 The resulting MSCV-FL
vector also carries the bacterial neomycin phosphotransferase
(neo) gene driven by an internal murine phosphoglycerate kinase
(pgk) promoter as dominant selectable marker. The corresponding
helper-free ecotropic retroviral vector producer line GP+E-86/MSCV-FL,
generated according to previously published
procedures,21-23 exported recombinant MSCV-FL vector at a
titer of 2 × 106 G418-resistant colony-forming
units/mL when assayed on NIH3T3 fibroblasts. GP+E-86/MSCV cells
exporting the parental MSCV vector with a comparable titer were used to
generate control transplant mice.24 Vector-producing cells
were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium with 4.5 g/L
glucose (Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, MD) supplemented with 10%
calf serum (Hyclone Laboratories, Logan, UT) in a humidified atmosphere
containing 5% CO2 at 37°C.
Retroviral transduction and transplantation of bone marrow.
Female BALB/c mice (Charles River Laboratories, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada) were used at 6 to 8 weeks of age as bone marrow donors and
recipients. Bone marrow processing, retroviral vector transduction, and
transplantation were performed as detailed previously.21-23 Typically, 5.0 to 7.5 × 105 G418-selected transduced
bone marrow cells were injected via the tail vein into each irradiated
(7 Gy of  -irradiation from a 137Cs source) recipient. A
total of 18 MSCV-FL experimental and 8 MSCV control transplant
recipients were generated in 8 separate experiments. For serial
transplantations, 106 bone marrow cells from
primary unaffected recipients or 5 × 106 spleen cells
from affected mice were injected intravenously into 7 Gy or 4 Gy
-irradiated hosts, respectively.
Hematologic analysis.
Blood was collected from the retro-orbital sinus at weekly intervals
after transplantation and immediately before killing, and hematologic
parameters were determined on a System 9000 Hematology Series Cell
Counter (Serono-Baker Instruments, Allentown, PA) using mouse-specific
discriminator settings.21-23
Histology and tissue processing.
Mice were killed by cervical dislocation when moribund, and necropsy
examinations were performed immediately after death. Samples of tissues
were preserved in 10% neutral-buffered formalin overnight, embedded in
paraffin, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin before
examination by light microscopy.
Single-cell suspensions of leukemic spleens were cultured in Iscove's
modified Dulbecco's medium (Life Technologies) containing 50 µmol/L
2-mercaptoethanol and 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (Life
Technologies), 0.75 mg/mL G418, and growth factors as noted. The
concentrations and sources of the growth factors used were as follows:
1% pokeweed mitogen-stimulated spleen cell-conditioned medium (a
source of murine interleukin-3 [IL-3] and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF]), 3 U/mL human erythropoietin (StemCell Technologies, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada), 10%
conditioned medium from Chinese hamster ovary cells producing soluble
murine KL (a gift from D. Donaldson, Genetics Institute, Cambridge, MA)
or 500 ng/mL recombinant murine mast cell growth factor (Immunex Corp,
Seattle, WA), 10% conditioned medium from X630-rIL3 cells producing
murine IL-3 (a gift from F. Melchers, Basel Institute, Basel,
Switzerland),25 10% conditioned medium from B9/hIL-11
cells producing human IL-11,22 and 100 ng/mL recombinant
murine IL-7 (Immunex).
Measurement of membrane-bound FL and FL bioactivity.
Expression of membrane-bound FL was assessed by staining with soluble
human flt3R-Fc fusion protein essentially as described.7,15 In brief, 0.5 to 1.0 × 106 cells per 50 µL of
sample were washed in phosphate-buffered saline with 3% fetal bovine
serum and 0.02% sodium azide at 4°C and then incubated with
soluble flt3R-Fc at 2 µg/mL for 1 hour. Cells were washed two times
and then incubated with biotinylated F(ab )2 fragments of affinity-purified mouse antihuman Ig Fc domain antibody at
1:100 (Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories, West Grove, PA) for 1 hour.
After washing two times, the cells were stained with R-phycoerythrin-streptavidin at 1:150 (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR)
for 30 minutes. To confirm the specificity of biotinylated soluble
flt3R-Fc staining, positive signals were competed with an excess of
purified recombinant FLAG-tagged human FL (lot no. 4812-035; Immunex).
Viable cells were gated by a combination of forward and orthogonal
light scatter and were analyzed on an Epics Elite flow cytometer
(Coulter Electronics, Hialeah, FL).
Production of biologically active FL was assessed by WWF7
bioassay.8 WWF7 is a murine pro-B-lymphoid cell line that
requires IL-7 plus FL for long-term growth in culture (provided by K. Brasel, Immunex). The cells were propagated in RPMI-1640 medium (Life Technologies) supplemented with 50 µmol/L 2-mercaptoethanol, 1 mmol/L pyruvate, 5% charcoal-treated fetal bovine serum, 100 ng/mL recombinant human IL-7 (Immunex), and 200 ng/mL recombinant human FL
(Immunex). For the assay, WWF7 cells were harvested by centrifugation, washed twice in medium lacking growth factors, and then seeded at a
density of 104 cells/100 µL well in the presence of 100 ng/mL IL-7 plus twofold dilutions of samples to be tested. Cells were
labeled with 0.2 µCi [3H]TdR (Amersham Canada Ltd,
Oakville, Ontario, Canada) from 28 to 40 hours. The incorporated
radioactivity was determined for triplicate cultures by liquid
scintillation counting (Betaplate; Wallac, Gaithersburg, MD) after
transfer of cellular debris to glass fiber filters with a cell
harvester (Skatron Instruments Inc, Sterling, VA). Purified recombinant
FLAG-tagged human FL was added at various concentrations between 0.1 and 200 ng/mL to generate a standard curve. The recombinant material
used had maximum activity in in vitro clonogenic progenitor assays at a concentration of 50 to 100 ng/mL.
Immunophenotyping of leukemic cells and cell lines.
Immunofluorescence flow cytometric analysis with monoclonal antibodies
recognizing hematopoietic cell-surface antigens was performed as
described.24,26 Fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated anti-CD11b/Mac-1  M integrin subunit (M1/70) was
purchased from Boehringer Mannheim (Laval, Quebec, Canada).
Phycoerythrin-conjugated anti-CD45R/B220 was purchased from PharMingen
(San Diego, CA). To prevent nonspecific Fc receptor binding, cells
(106) were first incubated with 1 mL of culture supernatant
from the 2.4G2 hybridoma (American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, MD). Viable cells were gated by a combination of forward and orthogonal light scatter and were analyzed on a FACScan flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, Mountain View, CA).
Wild-type virus assay.
Plasma from transplant recipients or culture supernatants from leukemic
cells were assayed for replication-competent viruses (ecotropic,
amphotropic, and xenotropic) by mobilization of a retroviral vector
carrying the neo gene from Dunii/N2
fibroblasts.27,28
Nucleic acid analysis.
Southern and Northern blot analyses were performed according to
standard procedures. Probes used were a 0.9-kb Xho
I-EcoRI fragment of the murine FL clone 6C cDNA,7 a
0.8-kb Bgl II fragment of the murine flt3R cDNA from pECE-F3 (a
gift from R. Rottapel, The Toronto Hospital-Ontario Cancer
Institute/Princess Margaret Hospital, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada),29 a 1.0-kb Bgl II-Sma I fragment
of the neo gene, a 0.5-kb EcoRI fragment of the murine lysozyme M cDNA,30 and a 1.2-kb Pst I fragment of
the rat glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase cDNA.
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RESULTS |
Leukemia development in mice engrafted with gene-modified bone marrow
expressing transmembrane FL.
Bone marrow cells, enriched for precursors by 5-fluorouracil
pretreatment of mice, were transduced with recombinant retroviral vectors according to a protocol shown previously to introduce functional genes into hematopoietic stem cells.23 Parallel
cultures were transduced with the MSCV-FL vector coexpressing a murine FL cDNA encoding transmembrane FL and the bacterial neo gene
and with the parental vector MSCV encoding only G418 resistance
(Fig 1). The transduction efficiency of
hematopoietic progenitors with both vectors was reproducibly  50%, as
determined by the percentage of G418-resistant total colony-forming
cells in a 7-day methylcellulose assay (data not shown).
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| Fig 1.
Structure of the MSCV-FL retroviral vector. The FL cDNA
is translated from retroviral LTR-directed 3.7-kb (full-length vector
RNA) and 3.0-kb (spliced) transcripts that also contain neo
sequences. The 3.0-kb spliced FL mRNA is normally present as a minor
species. The neo gene is transcribed from the murine
pgk promoter as a 1.3-kb mRNA; p(A) indicates the
polyadenylation site for all transcripts. Other abbreviations: SD,
splice donor; SA, splice acceptor;  +, extended
packaging region. Shown are the cleavage sites for the EcoRI
(E) and Xho I (X) restriction endonucleases.
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Twenty-six lethally irradiated, syngeneic recipient mice were each
transplanted with 5 to 7.5 × 105 transduced bone
marrow cells (18 MSCV-FL experimental and 8 MSCV control animals).
Beginning 3 weeks posttransplant, peripheral blood samples were
collected weekly and examined for changes in hematologic parameters for
periods of up to 1 year. Within 4 months of transplant, compared with
control mice, MSCV-FL mice presented with a mild macrocytic anemia that
was found to be due to an approximately 25% reduction in erythrocyte
counts (Table 1). MSCV-FL mice tended to
display slightly higher total leukocyte counts during this early
postengraftment interval; however, the difference was not statistically
significant and there were no meaningful changes in the absolute
numbers of lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes (Table 1). No
significant difference was observed in platelet levels between MSCV-FL
and control mice at these time points (Table 1). The MSCV-FL mice
remained otherwise healthy until 22 weeks posttransplant, at which time
mouse 199 exhibited dramatically elevated leukocyte counts accompanied
by severe anemia and thrombocytopenia. Subsequently, all reconstituted
experimental recipients that were observed for the remainder of the
12-month observation period (7 total) presented with leukocytosis and
became moribund; moreover, irrespective of whether a primary recipient
was symptomatic at time of killing, the majority of secondary
recipients of primary MSCV-FL bone marrow (20 of 24 recipients
belonging to 9 separate transplant pedigrees) also developed a
leukemic-like disease during the course of the study
(Fig 2). In contrast, none of the primary or secondary recipients that was transplanted with bone marrow cells
transduced with the parental MSCV vector expressing only the
neo gene, in either this study or our previous
studies,21-24,31 presented with leukocytosis.
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| Fig 2.
Serial leukocyte (WBC) counts in MSCV-FL mice. Each line
represents data from a single animal: mice 196, 197, 199, 203, 204, 208, and 209 are primary recipients; mice 198.2, 201.1, 205.2, 210.1, 210.2, 211.1, 211.2, 230.2, and 231.1 are secondary recipients.
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Characterization of leukemic cell populations.
Histopathological and flow cytometric evaluation of tissues taken at
postmortem and serial transplantation showed that the MSCV-FL mice had
developed B-cell and/or myeloid leukemias. Splenomegaly (~5-fold enlargement; average spleen weight of 0.48 ± 0.05 g
v 0.09 ± 0.02 g in controls), invasion of the lungs and
liver (Fig 3), and colonization of the bone
marrow by the tumors were frequently observed, along with some lymph
node infiltration (see Fig 8) but no or minimal involvement of the
thymus. The phenotype of representative leukemias was evaluated by
immunofluorescence flow cytometric analysis of spleen cell suspensions
using monoclonal antibodies recognizing hematopoietic cell surface
antigens. The analysis demonstrated heterogeneous expression of markers
characteristic of the B-lymphoid and myeloid lineages, including the
B-lineage marker B220/CD45R, the myeloid differentiation antigen
Mac-1/CD11b, the granulocyte marker Gr-1/Ly-6G, and the
monocyte/macrophage differentiation antigen Ly-6C, as well as
low-affinity Fc receptors for IgG FcRII/III and the heat-stable
antigen HSA/CD24 found on cells belonging to both lineages (data not
shown). Although the heterogeneity was likely due in part to reactive
cells, double staining with antibodies against B220 and Mac-1 showed a
minor subpopulation in some of the tumors that was positive for both markers (Fig 4), suggesting that, in these
cases, a precursor common to the B-cell and myeloid lineages was the
target cell for transformation. To further investigate this
possibility, we transferred serially transplanted tumors to culture
(see Materials and Methods). Three of the four leukemic populations
studied in detail (196-, 199-, and 203-series cells) preferentially
expressed B220 or Mac-1 after several weeks in vitro, whereas the
majority of cultured 204-series cells coexpressed B220 and Mac-1
(Table 2).
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| Fig 3.
Histology of representative leukemias arising in MSCV-FL
mice. Hematoxylin and eosin-stained sections are shown for mouse 196 with B-lymphoid leukemia (a through d) and for mouse 199 with
biphenotypic leukemia (e through h). (a) The bone marrow architecture
of mouse 196 is effaced by a blast cell infiltrate that extends into
the adjacent muscle (original magnification × 185). (b) At higher
magnification, blast cells in the bone marrow of mouse 196 can be seen
to be predominantly medium-sized with round to oval nuclei, moderately
basophilic cytoplasm, and occasionally with prominent nucleoli; mitotic
figures are abundant (original magnification × 1,115). (c) Lung of
mouse 196 showing diffuse interstitial and nodular peribronchial
parenchymal infiltrates (original magnification × 270). (d) Liver of
mouse 196 showing perivascular accumulations of blast cells as well as
some blast cells around bile ducts (original magnification × 370).
(e) Bone marrow of mouse 199 showing blast cells of variable size
occupying the hematopoietic space; scattered erythroblasts and
megakaryocytes are present (original magnification × 185). (f) At
higher magnification, blast cells in the bone marow of mouse 199 of
variable shape with irregular nuclei and one to three distinct nucleoli
can be seen to be intermixed with granulocytic cells of various
maturational stages (original magnification × 1,115). (g) Lung of
mouse 199 showing diffuse interstitial infiltrates of blast cells and
granulocytes (original magnification × 270). (h) Liver of mouse 199 showing polymorphous tumor infiltrates, sometimes with pronounced
granulocytic differentiation, mainly in periportal areas (original
magnification × 370).
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| Fig 4.
Immunofluorescence flow cytometric analysis of B220 and
Mac-1 coexpression by serially transplanted leukemic spleen cells from
MSCV-FL recipients 196, 199, 203, and 204. The percentages of
double-positive cells are indicated;  2%, background staining (see
Table 2 for details).
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Table 2.
Immunofluorescence Flow Cytometric Analysis of MSCV-FL
Leukemic Cells for Coexpression of B-Lymphoid and Myeloid Cell
Surface
Antigens
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Primary leukemic cells coexpress vector-encoded FL and endogenous
flt3R.
All cultured leukemic cells were resistant to G418, indicating the
presence of functional MSCV-FL vectors. However, with the exception of
204-series cells that could be propagated in the absence of exogenous
growth factors, the leukemic cell populations transferred to culture
required KL plus IL-3 or IL-7 for continued propagation in vitro. These
observations raised the question as to whether an autocrine FL-flt3R
loop was operating. We therefore examined fresh and cultured leukemic
cells for coexpression of FL and flt3R. High levels of the two expected
vector transcripts of 3.7 and 3.0 kb, corresponding to LTR-directed
full-length and spliced FL mRNAs, respectively, were detected in total
RNAs of most leukemic spleen cell populations
(Fig 5). In the blot of Fig 5, considerably
lower levels of FL transcripts were detected in the spleen RNA sample
prepared from a secondary recipient of 203 leukemic cells. The
diminished signal intensity in this sample was due to relatively fewer
numbers of infiltrating leukemic cells in the spleen of the animal at
time of killing, because neo transcripts were correspondingly
reduced, whereas higher levels of both vector RNAs were observed after
in vitro selection of cells in G418 (Fig 5, see lanes labeled 203 SPL
and 203 cells). Surface expression of FL had previously been
demonstrated on cells transfected with the FL 6C cDNA.7,8
Accordingly, we sought to ascertain whether MSCV-FL leukemic cells
likewise expressed membrane-bound FL. As shown for a representative
tumor in Fig 6, leukemic cells bound a
soluble version of flt3R, indicating that vector-encoded FL was
expressed on the cell surface. To determine if biologically active FL
was produced, conditioned medium from cultured leukemic cells was
tested for the capacity to stimulate the proliferation of WWF7 pro-B
cells. Functional FL was detected in all cases
(Fig 7).
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| Fig 5.
Expression of flt3R-specific mRNA by MSCV-FL leukemic
cells. Northern blot analysis of total cellular RNA (10 µg) prepared
from leukemic spleens (SPL) of secondary MSCV-FL recipients 196, 199, 203, and 204 or from corresponding liquid cultures of leukemic cells
maintained in the presence of KL, IL-3, and IL-7 plus G418 for 2 to 3 weeks. The blot was sequentially hybridized with probes specific for
neo (3.7, 3.0, and 1.3 kb), FL (3.7 and 3.0 kb), flt3R (3.2 kb), and lysozyme (1.7 kb) transcripts. The relative amounts of RNA
loaded are indicated by hybridization to a probe specific for
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) sequences (1.4 kb).
BALB/c SPL, negative control. Sizes were determined by comparison to
28S and 18S rRNAs (4.5 and 1.8 kb, respectively).
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| Fig 6.
Detection of membrane-bound FL on leukemic cells by flow
cytometric analysis. Serially transplanted 199 leukemic spleen cells
were transferred to liquid culture and maintained in the presence of
KL, IL-3, and IL-7 plus G418 for 4 weeks before analysis. Cells were
assayed for capacity to bind a soluble human flt3R-Fc fusion protein.
The solid line histogram represents specific staining (79.3% positive)
above background (shaded line histogram). See Materials and Methods for
details.
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| Fig 7.
Production of biologically active FL by MSCV-FL leukemic
cells. Serially transplanted leukemic spleen cells were transferred to
liquid culture and maintained in the presence of KL, IL-3, and IL-7 for
2 weeks before analysis. Conditioned medium (CM) was collected from
cells at a density of 106/mL and tested at 1:2 dilution for
capacity to stimulate the proliferation of the FL-responsive cell line
WWF7 in the presence of 100 ng/mL IL-7 (as described in Materials and
Methods). MSCV-FL, CM from GP+E-86/MSCV-FL producer cells; BALB/c
SPL, CM from control BALB/c spleen cells; FL, recombinant human FL.
Approximate undiluted FL equivalent concentrations: SPL196 CM, 0.8 ng/mL; SPL199 CM, 0.6 ng/mL; SPL203 CM, 0.2 ng/mL; and SPL 204 CM, 7.8 ng/mL.
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Endogenous flt3R mRNA transcripts were present in total RNAs prepared
from leukemic spleen cells expressing vector-encoded FL but, as
expected,32 not in normal spleen RNA (Fig 5).
Interestingly, although sustained vector-mediated expression of FL mRNA
and protein was documented in cultured leukemic cells, only 204-series
cells continued to express abundant amounts of flt3R mRNA after
extended propagation in vitro. In the other cultured leukemic cell
populations examined, endogenous flt3R mRNA levels were greatly reduced
(Fig 5). For SPL199 and SPL203 leukemic cells, loss of endogenous flt3R expression coincided with spontaneous differentiation, as evidenced by
concomitant upregulation of lysozyme mRNA (Fig 5) and the myeloid differentiation antigen Mac-1 (Table 2). Thus, especially for SPL204
cells, an autocrine FL-flt3R signaling loop is implicated in the in
vivo growth potential of MSCV-FL leukemic cells.
Clonal origin of leukemia.
Ten MSCV-FL mice killed before overt disease, which had normal
peripheral leukocyte counts, displayed a twofold to threefold increase
in spleen weight (average spleen weight of 0.22 ± 0.07 g v
0.09 ± 0.02 g in controls). Spleen cell subpopulations were not
characterized in this series of experiments. In cancer vaccine studies
with a soluble FL isoform, we have found elevated numbers of major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II+
CD11c+ (dendritic) cells33 (A.K. Stewart, Z.-H.
Li, and R.G.H., unpublished results, August 1997), so
these cells presumably contributed to the increased cellularity
observed. At the progenitor level, enumeration of G418-resistant
colony-forming cells responsive to KL and IL-11 or IL-7 showed an
approximately twofold elevation in three MSCV-FL recipients analyzed
compared with control mice (data not shown), consistent with
preleukemic expansion of the putative target cell populations of
B-cell/macrophage progenitors.34,35 To characterize vector
integration patterns in the reconstituted hematopoietic systems of
affected MSCV-FL mice, Southern blot analysis of EcoRI-digested DNA was performed with a neo probe. EcoRI cleaves the MSCV-FL vector once (Fig 1); therefore, each band detected by the probe represents a unique integration site. As shown in
Fig 8, a single common band or two common
bands of unchanging ratio were observed in genomic DNAs from all
hematopoietic tissues of each mouse examined (mice 196, 199, 203, and
204), indicative of a clonal origin of disease.22
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| Fig 8.
Clonality of leukemias that developed in MSCV-FL mice.
Southern blot analysis of EcoRI-digested genomic DNA (10 µg)
from hematopoietic tissues of affected primary MSCV-FL recipients 196, 199, 203, and 204 with a neo probe. Abbreviations: BM, bone marrow; LN,
lymph node; PB, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; SPL, spleen; THY,
thymus. BALB/c SPL, negative control. The sizes (in kilobases) of
HindIII-digested  phage DNA are indicated on the left of
each panel.
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To determine whether insertional mutagenesis by an endogenous
retrovirus might have contributed to neoplastic
transformation,36 plasma and supernatants from cultured
leukemic cells were tested for the presence of replication-competent
virus by a marker vector mobilization assay.27 In 5 cases,
there was a concordance between malignancy and the presence of
wild-type virus, suggesting that insertional mutagenesis by a BALB/c
endogenous retrovirus probably played a role in tumor induction
(Table 3). However, replication-competent virus was also detected in the plasma of a mouse (no. 202) that did not
have leukemia at the time of death. Conversely, plasma or culture
supernatant from several affected animals (mice 202, 203, and 204)
tested negative for the presence of infectious virus, indicating that
the secondary mutations responsible for the overt malignancy in these
instances must have occurred via mechanisms other than retroviral
insertional mutagenesis.
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DISCUSSION |
Coexpression of hematopoietic growth factors and their cognate
receptors has been documented in various hematologic malignancies, implicating autocrine (or juxtacrine/paracrine) mechanisms in leukemic
growth control.12,13 To elaborate the oncogenic potential of the FL/flt3R cytokine/receptor combination, we employed mice transplanted with gene-modified bone marrow constitutively expressing retroviral vector-encoded FL. We report that persistent expression of
the transmembrane FL isoform in the reconstituted hematopoietic systems
of these chimeric mice predisposes flt3R+ precursors to
leukemic transformation.
Analysis of flt3R distribution in the murine hematopoietic system has
shown a distinctive pattern of expression on blast cells and a small
subset of early B-cell progenitors in bone marrow, with low levels of
flt3R detected on monocytes but not on any other cell
type.32 In accord with the biochemical data, mice with a
targeted disruption in the flt3R gene were found to exhibit defects at
the hematopoietic stem cell and B-cell progenitor levels.37 Recently, FL has been implicated as a synergistic factor for a precursor in mice that has the capacity to give rise to both B cells
and macrophages,34,35 and there is some evidence to suggest that it may act directly on a biphenotypic B-/monocytic cell
progenitor38,39 (Jan-Ingvar Jönsson, personal
communication). It is pertinent in this regard, therefore, that the
MSCV-FL leukemias that developed exhibited characteristics of cells in
the B-lymphoid (expression of B220 and IgH Cµ transcripts) and
myeloid (expression of Mac-1 and lysozyme mRNA) lineages, with some
displaying both B-cell and myeloid markers (Figs 4 and 5, Table 2, and
data not shown).
In humans, flt3R is commonly found on leukemic cells of most cases of
B-ALL, AML, and biphenotypic leukemia.14 FL is
expressed in the majority of these leukemias and accumulated data
suggest that it acts in an autocrine manner promoting leukemic cell
survival and/or proliferation.15-18 Congruent with
the notion that an autostimulatory FL-flt3R loop is functioning in at
least some of these cases, retroviral-mediated overexpression of the
transmembrane isoform of human FL (analogous to the murine FL isoform
used in this study) in the FL-responsive human OCI-AML-5 line enhanced
the clonogenicity and proliferative capacity of the leukemic
cells.19 Our results provide additional experimental
evidence in support of this hypothesis. Of the leukemic samples
described here, the most compelling data for an in vivo FL-flt3R
autocrine loop came from 204-series cells, which maintained the
FL/flt3R association and displayed factor-independent growth in vitro.
Notably, in those cases in which the FL/flt3R association was disrupted
in vitro, it was not due to transcriptional failure of the vector but
instead to downregulation of endogenous flt3R expression as a result of
the spontaneous differentiation of the leukemic cells.
With the exception of a mild macrocytic anemia, MSCV-FL mice had
relatively normal peripheral hematologic parameters before disease
onset. A modest decrease in hematocrit associated with decreased
erythropoiesis in the bone marrow was previously observed after the
administration of recombinant soluble FL to mice.40 Nonetheless, in contrast to FL-treated mice, in which an approximately sevenfold increase in circulating leukocyte counts was observed (concomitant with increased formation of splenic dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and B-cell progenitors40,41),
preleukemic MSCV-FL mice displayed minor increases in peripheral
leukocyte levels. The hematologic changes in the preleukemic MSCV-FL
mice were also far less than had been reported in another study using our MSCV retroviral vector to overexpress FL.41 In the
latter, all FL-expressing animals died by 10 to 13 weeks
posttransplant, with extensive splenic pathology due to gross
infiltration by a mixed population of dendritic cells and atypical
lymphoid cells. The 6C FL cDNA used in our investigations encoding the
transmembrane isoform of FL requires proteolytic cleavage to generate
soluble FL protein.7 The protease responsible for this
cleavage has not been identified.6 Because
MSCV-FL-transduced cells (packaging fibroblasts and leukemic cells)
generally produced low levels of soluble FL (Fig 7; other data not
shown), it was not unexpected that the preleukemic MSCV-FL mice would
not have high circulating FL concentrations. On the other hand,
considering that the same isoform of FL was apparently used in the
other study,41 we can only presume that the transplantation
of 5 to 10 times more FL-expressing bone marrow cells per recipient in
that work is the reason for the disparate findings. If strain-specific
differences in FL processing or responsiveness exist, it is also
possible that the use of different strains of mice in the two studies
(BALB/c mice v B6D2F1 mice) contributed to the different
outcomes.
Whatever the explanation for the differences observed, prolonged
cytokine gene expression has been demonstrated to predispose to
neoplastic transformation in other model systems.22,42-44
We reported, for example, that under similar conditions dysregulated IL-11 expression led to a rare case of myeloid leukemia,22
whereas others have shown that chronic expression of IL-6, IL-7, and
IL-9 in transgenic mice promotes lymphoid tumors.42-44
Implicit in these models of experimental tumorigenesis is that
secondary genetic changes are necessary for conversion to frank
malignancy.45 In the current series of experiments, the
requirement for additional transforming events was inferred from the
long latency period (and the clonal nature) of the leukemias that
arose. Although the secondary mutations involved in FL-promoted
leukemogenesis remain to be elucidated, the presence of wild-type virus
in the majority of cases implicates insertional mutagenesis as a
prevalent mechanism and suggests a means of identifying the cooperating genes that are (in)activated.36
Considered together with other data,19,29 our results
indicate that constitutive expression of FL in normal murine
flt3R+ hematopoietic precursors promotes their leukemic
conversion. These findings in the murine system are of relevance to the
human situation in which coexpression of FL and flt3R by leukemic cells has been detected; whereas activation of a FL-flt3R autocrine loop
might not play an initiating and causative role in human leukemic
disease, based on these results it seems reasonable to assume that this
cytokine/receptor interaction participates in the maintenance of the
leukemic clone.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
Submitted February 6, 1998;
accepted May 11, 1998.
Supported by the National Cancer Institute of Canada with funds from
the Canadian Cancer Society (R.G.H.).
Address reprint requests to Robert G. Hawley, PhD, Oncology Gene
Therapy Program, The Toronto Hospital, CRCS-424, 67 College St,
Toronto, Ontario M5G 2M1, Canada.
The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" is accordance with 18 U.S.C. section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
| |
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Abstract
Introduction
Abstract
