|
|||||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NEOPLASIA
From the Department of Hematology, Oncology and Tumor
Immunology, University Medical Center Charité, Campus
Berlin-Buch, and the Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology,
University Medical Center Charité, Campus Virchow, Humboldt
University of Berlin, Germany; the Department of Immunology and Cell
Biology, University of Münster, Germany; the Department of
Molecular Biology, Flanders Interuniversity Institute for
Biotechnology, and University of Gent, Belgium.
The activation of caspase-8, a crucial upstream mediator of death
receptor signaling, was investigated in epirubicin- and Taxol-induced
apoptosis of B-lymphoma cells. This study was performed because the
CD95/Fas receptor-ligand interaction, recruitment of the Fas-associated
death domain (FADD) adaptor protein, and subsequent activation of
procaspase-8 have been implicated in the execution of drug-induced
apoptosis in other cell types. Indeed, active caspase-8 was readily
detected after treatment of mature and immature B-lymphoid cells with
epirubicin or Taxol. However, neither constitutive nor drug-induced
expression of the CD95/Fas ligand was detectable in B-lymphoma cells.
Furthermore, overexpression of a dominant-negative FADD mutant (FADDdn)
did not block caspase-8 processing and subsequent DNA fragmentation,
indicating that drug-induced caspase-8 activation was mediated by a
CD95/Fas-independent mechanism. Instead, caspase-8 cleavage was
slightly preceded by activation of caspase-3, suggesting that
drug-induced caspase-8 activation in B-lymphoma cells is a downstream
event mediated by other caspases. This assumption was confirmed in 2 experimental systems Apoptosis, a morphologically and biochemically
defined form of cell death,1 plays a role in a wide
variety of biologic systems, including tissue homeostasis and
regulation of the immune system.2,3 The process is a highly
orchestrated cellular pathway leading to activation of the downstream
death machinery. The central mediator and executioner of the death
machinery is a proteolytic system involving a family of cysteinyl
proteases, called caspases (for review, see Thornberry and
Lazebnik4). Triggering of the apoptotic cascade by
different death stimuli, such as ionizing radiation5 and
chemotherapeutic drugs,6 culminates in caspase-dependent
cleavage of a set of regulatory proteins, degradation of cellular DNA,
and complete disassembly of the cell. Thus far, 14 caspase family
members have been identified, and some of them, such as caspase-8,
mediate apoptotic signals after the activation of death
receptors.7,8 Others, such as caspase-9, are part of the
apoptosome and play a role in signal transduction after mitochondrial
damage.9 Recently, an endoplasmic-reticulum-specific pathway of apoptosis has been described that is mediated by
caspase-12.10
Previous data suggest that cytotoxic drugs induce cell death through
CD95/Fas-CD95 ligand interaction,11 and the relevance of
this particular death pathway has been shown, for instance, in
doxorubicin-induced apoptosis of leukemic T cells.12
However, other groups were unable to confirm these findings and showed CD95/Fas-independent induction of apoptosis by chemotherapeutic drugs In B cells, the induction of apoptosis plays important roles in humoral
immunity. In this context, it has been shown that the antigen receptor
BCR and the CD95/Fas receptor transduce pro-apoptotic signals in mature
B cells (for review, see Tsubata18). We previously showed
that activation-induced apoptosis of normal and malignant B lymphocytes
upon antigen-receptor ligation is independent of CD95/Fas and CD95/Fas
ligand.19 This has been confirmed by another study
demonstrating that B-cell receptor-mediated apoptosis, in contrast to
activation-induced T-cell apoptosis, is not mediated through known
death receptor systems, nor does it involve the initial activation of
caspase-8.20 We nevertheless observed that drug treatment
leads to processing and activation of procaspase-8. We therefore
focused our interest on the specific mechanisms leading to apoptotic
death after the treatment of immature and mature B-lymphoma cells with
cytotoxic drugs. By Northern blot analysis for the detection of CD95
ligand, by blocking of CD95 ligand/CD95 receptor interaction, and by
overexpression of dominant-negative FADD (FADDdn), we show here that
epirubicin-induced apoptosis in B cells is independent of a functional
CD95 ligand-CD95 death-inducing signaling complex. This
CD95-independent mechanism was also found after the treatment of B
cells with Taxol, a chemotherapeutic agent that perturbs microtubule
dynamics.21 Furthermore, experimental evidence is provided
that the activation of caspase-8 in B cells occurs downstream of the
mitochondrial apoptosome and caspase-3. Thus, in contrast to the death
receptor-mediated activation of apoptosis, caspase-8 appears to
function as an amplifying executioner caspase in drug-induced B cell apoptosis.
Materials
Cell culture
Additionally, bone marrow material from patients with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) was obtained by bone marrow aspiration. Lymphoblasts and mononuclear cells were separated by centrifugation over Ficoll. The percentage of leukemic lymphoblasts was greater than 90%, which is in accordance with findings of a former study.23 The diagnosis was established by immunophenotyping of leukemia cells according to Béné et al.24 After separation, cells were immediately seeded at a density of 1 × 105 cells/mL in RPMI 1640 complete cell culture medium and treated with epirubicin. Leukemic lymphoblasts were also treated with Taxol. However, because of the missing cell proliferation in this experimental setting, Taxol did not induce significant apoptosis or caspase activation in primary lymphoblasts (data not shown). CD95/Fas-mediated induction of apoptosis Anti-CD95 (anti-APO-1 IgG3) or FII23c F(ab)2 fragments were produced as described25 and were added to the cultures before exposure to the cytostatic drugs. As a positive control for the ability of the F(ab)2 fragments to block CD95/Fas receptor ligand interaction, we used Jurkat T cells induced for apoptosis by immobilized OKT3 anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody.19Measurement of cell death For the determination of cell death, 3 × 104 cells per well were seeded in microtiter plates and treated for different time periods with 1 µg/mL anti-CD95 or the chemotherapeutic agents. Cell death was assessed by the uptake of propidium iodide (2 µg/mL) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) into nonfixed cells and by subsequent flow cytometric analysis using the FSC-FL2 profile. Analyses were performed on a FACScalibur (Becton Dickinson; Heidelberg, Germany) using CellQuest analysis software. Additionally, cell death was determined by trypan blue exclusion as described.26 Both methods virtually gave the same results.Measurement of DNA fragmentation DNA fragmentation was measured essentially as described.27 Briefly, cells were seeded at a density of 1 × 105 cells/mL and treated with different concentrations of the respective cytotoxic drugs. After 24, 48, and 72 hours, cells were collected by centrifugation at 300g for 5 minutes, washed with PBS at 4°C, and fixed in PBS/2% (vol/vol) formaldehyde on ice for 30 minutes. After fixation, cells were incubated with ethanol/PBS (2:1, vol/vol) for 15 minutes, pelleted, and resuspended in PBS containing 40 µg/mL RNase A. After incubation for 30 minutes at 37°C, cells were pelleted again and finally resuspended in PBS containing 50 µg/mL propidium iodide. Nuclear DNA fragmentation was then quantified by flow cytometric determination of hypodiploid DNA. Data were collected and analyzed using a FACScan (Becton Dickinson) equipped with the CELLQuest software. Data are given in percentage hypoploidy (subG1), which reflects the number of apoptotic cells. Specific apoptosis was calculated by subtracting background apoptosis observed in control cells from total apoptosis observed in drug-treated cells. Background apoptosis was approximately 5%, depending on the cell line and the experimental settings.Northern blotting Northern blotting and hybridization were performed as previously described.19 CD95 ligand expression (1.3 kB mRNA) was detected using a 500-bp polymerase chain reaction-cloned fragment, and -actin was detected with a cloned and sequenced 246-bp fragment obtained by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction as described.19
Immunoblotting After incubation with the respective cytostatic drugs, cells were washed twice with PBS and lysed in buffer containing 10 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.5, 300 mM NaCl, 1% Triton X-100, 2 mM MgCl2, 5 µM EDTA, 1 µM pepstatin, 1 µM leupeptin, and 0.1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. Protein concentration was determined using the bicinchoninic acid assay28 from Pierce (Rockford, IL), and equal amounts of protein (usually 20 µg per lane) were separated by SDS-PAGE.29 Then, immunoblotting was performed as described.30 Membranes (Schleicher & Schuell, Dassel, Germany) were swollen in CAPS-buffer (10 mM 3-[cyclohexylamino]propane-1-sulfonic acid, pH 11, 10% MeOH) for several minutes, and blotting was performed at 1 mA/cm2 for 1 hour in a transblot SD cell (Bio-Rad, Munich, Germany). The membrane was blocked for 1 hour in PBST (PBS, 0.05% Tween-20) containing 3% nonfat dry milk and incubated with primary antibody for 1 hour. After the membrane had been washed 3 times in PBST, secondary antibody in PBST was applied for 1 hour. Finally, the membrane was washed in PBST again, and protein bands were detected using the enhanced chemiluminescence system (Amersham Buchler, Braunschweig, Germany).Preparation of cytoplasmic cell extracts and induction of the cell-free apoptotic system Cell extracts were prepared as described.27 Briefly, BJAB cells were washed twice with PBS, resuspended in buffer A containing 20 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 10 mM KCl, 2 mM MgCl2, and 1 mM EDTA and incubated on ice for 15 minutes. Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride was added to give a final concentration of 0.1 mM. Cells were then disrupted by 15 passages through a 21-gauge × 1 1/2 needle (0.80 mm × 40 mm; Braun, Melsungen, Germany). The homogenates were cleared by centrifugation at 16 000g, 4°C for 15 minutes. The centrifugation step was repeated, and the clear supernatants were used for in vitro caspase activation, immunoprecipitation of caspase-3, or measurement of caspase activities. For initiating in vitro caspase activation, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 10 µM horse heart cytochrome c (Sigma; Munich, Germany), and 1 mM dATP were added, and the extracts were incubated at 30°C for 5 minutes followed by incubation at 37°C for different time periods. Control extracts were similarly incubated in the absence of cytochrome c and dATP.Measurement of caspase-3-like and caspase-8-like activities Caspase-3-like activity was measured in cell extracts from BJAB cells as described31 with some modifications. To this end, 10 µL extract, 90 µL buffer B containing 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethyl-ammonio]-1-propanesulfonate, 10% saccharose, 5 mM dithiothreitol, and 2 µL colorimetric substrate (10 mM Ac-DEVD-pNA in dimethyl sulfoxide) were mixed. Samples were incubated at 37°C, and the absorbance at 405 nm was measured in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reader every 5 minutes. One unit enzyme activity is defined as µmol Ac-DEVD-pNA cleaved per minute. Caspase-8-like activity was measured in BJAB cells using Ac-IETD-pNA as substrate.Immunoprecipitation of caspase-3 Caspase-3 was immunoprecipitated from cellular extracts of BJAB cells essentially as described elsewhere.32 Briefly, 100 µL cellular extract was incubated with 0.5 mg protein A-Sepharose and 20 µL antihuman caspase-3 antibody at 4°C for 4 hours and moderately shaken. The protein A-Sepharose immune complex was sedimented by centrifugation at 300g, 4°C for 5 minutes, and the supernatant was used for in vitro activation by the addition of dATP and cytochrome c as described above. In addition, 100 µL control extract was incubated in the presence of protein A-Sepharose and the absence of antihuman caspase-3 antibody.Measurement of the mitochondrial permeability transition After incubation with the respective cytostatic drugs, cells were collected by centrifugation at 300g, 4°C for 5 minutes. Mitochondrial permeability transition was then determined by staining the cells with 5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro-1,1',3,3'-tetraethyl-benzimidazolylcarbocyanin iodide (JC-1; Molecular Probes, Leiden, The Netherlands) as described.33,34 1 × 105 cells were resuspended in 500 µL phenol red-free RPMI 1640 without supplements, and JC-1 was added to give a final concentration of 2.5 µg/mL. The cells were incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C and moderately shaken. Control cells were incubated in the absence of JC-1 dye. The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 300g, 4°C for 5 minutes, washed with ice-cold PBS, and resuspended in 200 µL PBS at 4°C. Mitochondrial permeability transition was then quantified by flow cytometric determination of cells with decreased fluorescence that is,
with mitochondria displaying a lower membrane potential. Data were
collected and analyzed using a FACScan (Becton Dickinson) equipped with
the CELLQuest software. Data are given in percentage cells with low
  m, which reflects the number of apoptotic cells.
Anticancer drugs induce apoptosis and caspase-8 activation in CD95/Fas-sensitive and -resistant B-lymphoid cells To investigate B cell apoptosis induced by anticancer drugs, BJAB cells were treated with 0.1 µg/mL Taxol or 1.0 µg/mL epirubicin for 24 hours, 48 hours, and 72 hours. Apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry using a modified cell cycle assay and measurement of hypodiploid DNA. These experiments revealed that not only BJAB cells (Figure 1A) but also immature B cells, namely NALM-6 (Figure 1B) and REH cells (Figure 1C), and primary B-ALL cells (Table 1) displayed significant DNA fragmentation after treatment with the cytotoxic drugs. To verify that the cells underwent apoptotic cell death, the cleavage of 2 known caspase substrates, poly-(ADP-ribose)polymerase and GDP dissociation inhibitor (D4-GDI),27 was investigated by Western blot analysis. Cleavage of these proteins occurred in a time-dependent manner corresponding to the results obtained by flow cytometric analysis. Cleavage was detected as early as 24 hours after treatment and reached a maximum after 48 hours (data not shown). To further examine apoptosis signaling pathways in B cells, we determined drug-induced processing and activation of caspase-3 in our experimental systems. As shown in Figure 2A, the immunoreactive 17-kd active subunit of caspase-3 was detected in BJAB cells as early as 24 hours after treatment and persisted for 72 hours. Furthermore, the appearance of the 17-kd subunit of caspase-3 was observed in drug-treated NALM-6 (Figure 2B, upper panel), REH (Figure 2C, upper panel), and primary B ALL cells (Figure 2D, upper panel) after 48 hours.
We also detected caspase-8 processing in all B-lineage cells tested in
this study (Figure 2A-C, lower panel). Interestingly, prolonged
incubation of primary childhood B-lineage ALL blasts for 48 hours in
the presence of epirubicin led to complete processing of procaspase-8,
as evidenced by the disappearance of the proenzyme (Figure 2D, lower
panel). However, more detailed time-course experiments in BJAB cells
revealed that caspase-8 cleavage was delayed compared with that of
caspase-3. Whereas the 17-kd active subunit of caspase-3 was already
observed after 24 hours of Taxol and epirubicin treatment (Figure
3A), caspase-8 processing and detection
of the 18-kd active subunit of caspase-8 was only marginal at this time
point (Figure 3B). After 6 hours and 10 hours of drug treatment, we
could not detect any processing of caspase-3 (Figure 3A) or caspase-8
(Figure 3B). To further substantiate these data, caspase-3-like and
caspase-8-like activities were measured in Taxol- and
epirubicin-treated BJAB cells. Again, Taxol- and epirubicin-induced
caspase-3-like activity preceded caspase-8-like activity. After 24 hours of treatment with both drugs, caspase-3-like activity was
enhanced 4 times compared with control cells (Figure
4A). On the other hand, no significant
increase of caspase-8 activity was observed at time points up to 24 hours (Figure 4B). At a later time point, however, the processing of
procaspase-8 and the appearance of the 18-kd active subunit of
caspase-8 coincided with an elevation of caspase-8-like enzyme
activity in drug-treated BJAB cells. After 48 hours of incubation, the
measurement of Ac-IETD-pNA cleavage showed 7.9-fold and
10.2-fold increases in caspase-8-like activity in epirubicin- and
Taxol-treated BJAB cells, respectively (Figure 4B). A significant increase in caspase-8-like activity was also measured after the treatment of NALM-6 and REH cells with epirubicin and Taxol (data not
shown).
Drug-induced apoptosis in B-lineage leukemia is independent of CD95 ligand and CD95 death-inducing signaling complex In previous studies, it has been demonstrated that cytotoxic drugs strongly stimulate CD95 ligand messenger RNA expression in human leukemia T-cell lines.11 To test whether CD95 ligand expression in B-lineage leukemia cells after challenge with epirubicin correlates with the activation of caspase-8, we performed Northern blot analyses for CD95 ligand expression and blocking experiments to assess the requirement of CD95/Fas-CD95 ligand interaction in our system. As already shown above, the onset of the apoptotic program after treatment with epirubicin takes at least 24 hours, and no evidence for induction of the initiator caspase-8 at earlier time points could be found. Nevertheless, we performed control experiments to check the time frame of epirubicin-induced CD95 ligand expression, and significant levels of CD95 ligand mRNA were detected in primary leukemic T-lineage ALL cells after 24 hours of incubation with this drug (data not shown). In clear contrast, Northern blot analyses revealed that neither primary leukemic cell samples of patients with childhood B-lineage ALL (Figure 5A) nor BJAB (Figure 5B) and REH cells (Figure 5C) expressed significant levels of CD95 ligand mRNA after drug exposure. However, using cross-linking of Jurkat T cells by anti-CD3 as an additional control, we could clearly demonstrate CD95 ligand mRNA expression (Figure 5D).
In another set of experiments, we used anti-CD95/Fas F(ab)2
fragments to block CD95 ligand-CD95 receptor interaction. In
accordance with the lack of CD95 ligand expression, epirubicin-induced
apoptosis of BJAB (Figure 6A) and REH
cells (Figure 6B) was not influenced by neutralizing anti-CD95 antibody
F(ab)2 fragments. The same was true for primary B-lineage
ALL cells, which also showed epirubicin-induced DNA fragmentation that
could not be inhibited by neutralizing anti-CD95 antibody
F(ab)2 fragments (Table 1). As a positive control for these
blocking experiments, again Jurkat T cells were treated with
immobilized anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody OKT3 to trigger
activation-induced cell death (see also the control experiment shown in
Figure 5D). In this experimental setup, anti-CD3-triggered cell death
was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by the addition of
anti-CD95 F(ab)2 fragments (Figure 6C), thereby confirming
that this approach allows discrimination between CD95-dependent and
CD95-independent signaling pathways. Thus, epirubicin-induced apoptosis
in B lymphoid cells is not functionally linked to CD95 ligand-CD95
receptor interaction.
Processing of caspase-8 occurs independently of CD95 signaling in BJAB cells As shown above, drug-induced apoptosis in B cells was not accompanied by the expression of CD95 ligand mRNA and occurred independently of CD95 ligand-CD95 receptor interaction. Nevertheless, the induction of apoptosis in these cells also led to the cleavage of caspase-8. To further exclude an involvement of the CD95 or other death receptor systems, we used BJAB cells overexpressing a dominant-negative FADD mutant (FADDdn). Both mock and FADDdn transfectants express endogenous FADD (27 kd), whereas the FADDdn transfectants also show a lower band representing the truncated FADDdn (see Figure 7A). This FADD mutant blocks CD95-induced apoptosis22 and completely prevents caspase-3 activation upon triggering of the BJAB transfectants with agonistic anti-CD95 antibodies.35 In our hands, BJAB/FADDdn cells were completely resistant to treatment with 1 µg/mL agonistic anti-CD95 antibody, whereas approximately 70% of the control vector-transfected BJAB/mock cells were killed under the same conditions (Figure 7B), thereby demonstrating the efficacy of FADDdn in this cell line. However, in accordance with the hypothesis that drug-induced caspase-8 processing in BJAB cells is independent of CD95 signaling, the active 18-kd subunit of caspase-8 was detected in BJAB/FADDdn cells after challenge with Taxol and epirubicin (Figure 8B). The cleavage of caspase-8 in these cells coincided with the appearance of the 17-kd active subunit of caspase-3 (Figure 8A). CD95-independent apoptosis was further supported by the assessment of drug-induced DNA fragmentation in BJAB/FADDdn cells as compared with control vector-transfected BJAB/mock cells. As shown in Figure 8C, Taxol- and epirubicin-induced apoptosis was not significantly influenced by the overexpression of FADDdn. In recent publications, the critical role of mitochondrial damage for drug-induced apoptosis36,37 and CD95-dependent signaling to mitochondria through caspase-8-mediated cleavage of Bid has been demonstrated.38 We thus measured mitochondrial activation after treatment with Taxol and epirubicin in our experimental system. Treatment of BJAB/mock cells with both agents led to significant mitochondrial permeability transition and to an approximately 2.5-fold increase of cells with lowm after 48 hours (Figure 8D). This
drug-induced mitochondrial permeability transition was not influenced
by the overexpression of FADDdn (Figure 8D), thereby excluding the
possibility that the mitochondrial activation in BJAB cells was
mediated by a CD95-dependent mechanism. Time-course experiments in
BJAB/mock, BJAB/FADDdn, NALM-6, and REH cells revealed that the
mitochondrial permeability transition already occurred 24 hours after
the addition of epirubicin and Taxol to the culture medium and thus
preceded, or at least coincided with, the processing of procaspase-8
(data not shown).
Caspase-3 triggers activation of caspase-8 in vivo and in vitro Different death stimuli activate mitochondria, which in turn release cytochrome c. The latter triggers an apoptotic cascade through Apaf-1-caspase-9 complex formation,9 leading to the subsequent activation of the main executioner of the apoptotic machinery, caspase-3. From the results described above, we reasoned that the processing of procaspase-8 to the active caspase-8 occurs downstream of caspase-3. To verify this hypothesis, we used zDEVD-fmk, a cell-permeable peptide-inhibitor that specifically inhibits caspase-3-like enzyme activities by irreversibly binding to the active site of caspase-3. In a control experiment, we first excluded that zDEVD-fmk interferes with upstream initiator caspases, for example, caspase-8. Indeed, this inhibitor did not inhibit CD95- or epirubicin-induced cleavage of caspase-3 (Figure 9A and C, respectively). Addition of the inhibitor to anti-CD95 antibody- and drug-treated cells led to a clear shift of the 17-kd active subunit of caspase-3 to a higher apparent molecular weight of approximately 18 kd (Figures 9A and C, 10A), indicating that the inhibitor had irreversibly bound to the enzyme. Interestingly, zDEVD-fmk only inhibited drug-induced cell-death (Figures 9D, 10C), whereas CD95-induced cell death was not influenced (Figure 9B). This might be explained by the recent finding that caspase-3 is involved in a feedback loop for the amplification of drug-induced mitochondrial cytochrome c release.39 Furthermore, the inhibition of caspase-3-like activity by zDEVD-fmk in this experimental setting was confirmed by Western blot analysis of the cleavage of the caspase-3 substrate D4-GDI, which was completely inhibited when drug-treated cells were incubated in the presence of the peptide inhibitor (data not shown). Thus, zDEVD-fmk represents a suitable tool to investigate apoptosis-associated events located downstream of caspase-3. As shown in Figure 10B, the treatment of BJAB cells with zDEVD-fmk completely blocked Taxol- and epirubicin-induced processing of procaspase-8, and its 18-kd active cleavage product was no longer detected. This again provided evidence that drug-induced activation of caspase-8 occurred downstream of caspase-3. To further investigate the mechanism of caspase-8 processing in vitro, a cell-free system based on the activation of BJAB cytosol with cytochrome c and dATP40 was established. As shown in Figure 11A, the addition of cytochrome c and dATP to cellular extracts led to the rapid cleavage of procaspase-3 and to the appearance of the 17-kd active cleavage product of caspase-3 after 10 minutes. Interestingly, processing of procaspase-8 was delayed compared with that of caspase-3, and the 18-kd active subunit of caspase-8 was detected after 120 minutes of incubation (Figure 11A, lower panel). This was verified by the measurement of caspase-3- and caspase-8-like enzyme activities using the colorimetric peptide substrates Ac-DEVD-pNA and Ac-IETD-pNA, respectively. Again, the activation of caspase-3 preceded the activation of caspase-8 (Figure 11B). This was reflected by a steady increase of the caspase-8-caspase-3 ratio from 0.156 after 10 minutes to 0.215 after 70 minutes and to 0.290 after 130 minutes of incubation with cytochrome c and dATP.
To order the processing of procaspase-8 within the cytochrome
c-initiated caspase cascade, we immunoprecipitated caspase-3 from BJAB
cell extracts. Measurement of caspase-3-like enzyme activity in
extracts that had been treated with anti-caspase-3 antibodies,
followed by sedimentation of the immune complex using protein
A-Sepharose, showed that 90% of the total caspase-3 activity was
successfully precipitated (Figure 12A).
Although caspase-8 processing was detected in control extracts after
130 and 190 minutes of incubation with cytochrome c and dATP (Figure
12B, upper panel), the processing of procaspase-8 and the appearance of
the active 18-kd subunit of caspase-8 was completely blocked in
caspase-3-depleted cell extracts (Figure 12B, lower panel). Thus, both
the experiments in intact B cells and in the cell-free system indicate
that caspase-8 activation through the mitochondrial pathway is an event
occurring downstream of caspase-3 activation.
Recently, a controversial discussion about the role of the CD95
receptor-ligand system in drug-induced apoptosis in human leukemia
T-cell lines was raised, and it is still a matter of debate whether
CD95-mediated signaling is functionally involved in the propagation of
death signals after drug treatment. Although an involvement of
CD95-CD95 ligand was originally demonstrated,11 other
groups could not confirm drug-induced CD95 ligand expression and
inhibition of drug-induced apoptosis by the use of blocking anti-CD95
antibodies, and they showed CD95-independent death signaling after the
exposure of malignant T cells to cytotoxic
drugs.13,14,41,42 However, Fulda et al12
insisted that a functional CD95 ligand and CD95 death-inducing
signaling complex plays an important role in activation-induced and
doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in leukemic T cells. These conflicting
data might in part be explained by the concept of CD95 type 1 and type
2 cells.43 CD95-mediated apoptosis in type 1 cells is
suggested to be initiated by large amounts of caspase-8 formed at the
death-inducing signaling complex at the plasma membrane, whereas in
type 2 cells small amounts of active caspase-8 are believed to induce
the apoptogenic activity of mitochondria. However, many experiments
have documented that CD95/Fas-deficient, FADD-deficient, and
caspase-8-deficient cells are normally sensitive to chemotherapeutic
drugs. Because all these molecules were reported to be essential for
CD95-induced apoptosis in type 1 and type 2 cells, even the type
1-type 2 paradigm has recently been questioned.44
Nevertheless, the use of different experimental approaches In principle, mature B cells can undergo apoptosis by signaling through CD95.18,19,25,45,46 However, most B-lineage ALL cells are negative or only express low amounts of CD95/Fas and are constitutively resistant toward CD95-induced death but can be sensitized for this signaling pathway by pretreatment with chemotherapeutic drugs.47 We report here that epirubicin and Taxol, 2 different kinds of drugs that target the nucleus or the cytoskeleton, respectively, are effective inducers of apoptotic cell death in B-lymphoid cell lines and in primary B-lineage tumor cells. Apoptosis and activation of distinct caspases by these drugs occurred in a CD95-independent manner, as further evidenced by the use of a dominant-negative FADD mutant (FADDdn). Overexpression of FADDdn did not influence caspase-3 or mitochondrial activation as early events nor DNA fragmentation as a late event in drug-induced apoptosis. Interestingly, we also observed processing and activation of procaspase-8 after the addition of cytotoxic drugs to the culture medium of B-lymphoid cells. In all cases, the processing of procaspase-8 was either preceded or paralleled by mitochondrial permeability transition. These results suggest that the mitochondrial apoptosome is a main player in drug-induced apoptosis of B-lymphoid cells, thereby confirming other data that point to the critical role for mitochondria in the apoptotic pathways of other cell types, such as HeLa cells37 and malignant melanoma.48 Caspases with long prodomains, such as caspase-8, are generally considered to be upstream (inducer) caspases because of their ability to associate with cell surface death-receptor molecules. However, it has been shown that the addition of cytochrome c to Jurkat cell-free extracts initiates a cascade of protease activation events in vitro involving caspases-2, -3, -6, -7, -8, -9, and -10.49 We therefore reasoned that the molecular order in our experimental system is represented by the hierarchical activation of mitochondria, caspase-3, and caspase-8. This hypothesis was further substantiated by 2 different experimental approaches: (1) the cell-permeable peptide zDEVD-fmk, which irreversibly inhibits caspase-3-like enzyme activities, blocked processing of procaspase-8 in drug-treated BJAB cells, and (2) the depletion of caspase-3 from BJAB cell extracts abrogated cytochrome c-induced processing of procaspase-8. Thus, unlike its role as an inducer caspase in death receptor-triggered apoptosis, caspase-8 appears to function as a downstream (executioner) caspase during drug-induced apoptosis. The potential relevance of apoptosis signaling for clinical practice has recently been demonstrated in a patient with B-cell lymphoma. In this study, the protein kinase inhibitor 7-hydroxystaurosporine sensitized the lymphoma cells to the cytotoxic effects of multi-agent chemotherapy, presumably by modulating the threshold for apoptosis.50 Our results, that the drug-induced activation of caspase-8 in B-lymphoid cells occurs independently of the CD95/Fas death-inducing signaling complex and downstream of the main executioner of the mitochondrial apoptosis signaling complex, caspase-3, provide new insights into the molecular cascade of apoptosis signaling in this important cellular system.
We thank Clarissa von Haefen and Verena Lehmann for their expert technical assistance.
Submitted June 1, 2000; accepted October 10, 2000.
Supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 273 and SFB 506) (P.T.D.), the European Community TMR Programme (P.T.D., K.S.-O., R.B.), and the Verein zur Förderung der Tagesklinik e. V. (T.W., A.P.). F.E. is a recipient of a fellowship from the DFG Graduiertenkolleg 331 at the University Medical Center Charité.
The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. Therefore, and solely to indicate this fact, this article is hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. section 1734.
Reprints: Peter T. Daniel, Department of Hematology, Oncology, and Tumor Immunology, University Medical Center Charité, Campus Berlin-Buch, Humboldt University of Berlin, Lindenberger Weg 80, 13125 Berlin, Germany; e-mail: pdaniel{at}mdc-berlin.de.
1. Kerr J, Wyllie A, Currie A. Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer. 1972;26:239-257[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 2. Krammer PH, Behrmann I, Daniel P, Dhein J, Debatin KM. Regulation of apoptosis in the immune system. Curr Opin Immunol. 1994;6:279-289[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 3. Ellis RE, Yuan JY, Horvitz HR. Mechanisms and functions of cell death. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1991;7:663-698[CrossRef].
4.
Thornberry NA, Lazebnik Y.
Caspases: enemies within.
Science.
1998;281:1312-1316
5.
Findley HW, Gu L, Yeager AM, Zhou M.
Expression and regulation of Bcl-2, Bcl-xl, and Bax correlate with p53 status and sensitivity to apoptosis in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Blood.
1997;89:2986-2993
6.
Hannun YA.
Apoptosis and the dilemma of cancer chemotherapy.
Blood.
1997;89:1845-1853 7. Boldin MP, Goncharov TM, Goltsev YV, Wallach D. Involvement of MACH, a novel MORT1/FADD-interacting protease, in Fas/APO-1- and TNF receptor-induced cell death. Cell. 1996;85:803-815[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 8. Muzio M, Chinnaiyan AM, Kischkel FC, et al. FLICE, a novel FADD-homologous ICE/CED-3-like protease, is recruited to the CD95 (Fas/APO-1) death-inducing signaling complex. Cell. 1996;85:817-827[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 9. Li P, Nijhawan D, Budihardjo I, et al. Cytochrome c and dATP-dependent formation of Apaf-1/caspase-9 complex initiates an apoptotic protease cascade. Cell. 1997;91:479-489[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 10. Nakagawa T, Zhu H, Morishima N, et al. Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature. 2000;403:98-103[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 11. Friesen C, Herr I, Krammer PH, Debatin KM. Involvement of the CD95 (APO-1/FAS) receptor/Ligand system in drug-induced apoptosis in leukemia cells. Nat Med. 1996;2:574-577[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve].
12.
Fulda S, Strauss G, Meyer E, Debatin KM.
Functional CD95 ligand and CD95 death-inducing signaling complex in activation-induced cell death and doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in leukemic T cells.
Blood.
2000;95:301-308
13.
Wesselborg S, Engels IH, Rossmann E, Los M, Schulze-Osthoff K.
Anticancer drugs induce caspase-8/FLICE activation and apoptosis in the absence of CD95 receptor/Ligand interaction.
Blood.
1999;93:3053-3063
14.
Newton K, Strasser A.
Ionizing radiation and chemotherapeutic drugs induce apoptosis in lymphocytes in the absence of Fas or FADD/MORT1 signaling: implications for cancer therapy.
J Exp Med.
2000;191:195-200 15. Strasser A, Harris AW, Huang DC, Krammer PH, Cory S. Bcl-2 and Fas/APO-1 regulate distinct pathways to lymphocyte apoptosis. EMBO J. 1995;14:6136-6147[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 16. Newton K, Harris AW, Bath ML, Smith KGC, Strasser A. A dominant interfering mutant of FADD/MORT1 enhances deletion of autoreactive thymocytes and inhibits proliferation of mature T lymphocytes. EMBO J. 1998;17:706-718[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 17. Varfolomeev EE, Schuchmann M, Luria V, et al. Targeted disruption of the mouse caspase 8 gene ablates cell death induction by the TNF receptors, Fas/Apo1, and DR3 and is lethal prenatally. Immunity. 1998;9:267-276[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 18. Tsubata T. Apotosis of mature B cells. Int Rev Immunol. 1999;18:347-365[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 19. Daniel PT, Oettinger U, Mapara MY, Bommert K, Bargou R, Dörken B. Activation and activation-induced death of human tonsillar B cells and Burkitt lymphoma cells: lack of CD95 (Fas/APO-1) ligand expression and function. Eur J Immunol. 1997;27:1029-1034[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 20. Bouchon A, Krammer PH, Walczak H. Critical role for mitochondria in B cell receptor-mediated apoptosis. Eur J Immunol. 2000;30:69-77[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 21. Sorger PK, Dobles M, Tournebize R, Hyman AA. Coupling cell division and cell death to microtubule dynamics. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1997;9:807-814[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve].
22.
Bantel H, Engels IH, Voelter W, Schulze-Osthoff K, Wesselborg S.
Mistletoe lectin activates caspase-8/FLICE independently of death receptor signaling and enhances anticancer drug-induced apoptosis.
Cancer Res.
1999;59:2083-2090 23. Prokop A, Wieder T, Sturm I, et al. Relapse in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia is associated with a decrease of the Bax/Bcl-2-ratio and loss of spontaneous caspase-3 processing in vivo. Leukemia. 2000;14:1606-1613[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 24. Béné MC, Castoldi G, Knapp W, et al. Proposals for the immunological classification of acute leukemias: European Group for the Immunological Characterization of Leukemias (EGIL). Leukemia. 1995;9:1783-1786[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 25. Dhein J, Daniel PT, Trauth BC, Oehm A, Moller P, Krammer PH. Induction of apoptosis by monoclonal antibody anti-APO-1 class switch variants is dependent on cross-linking of APO-1 cell surface antigens. J Immunol. 1992;149:3166-3173[Abstract]. 26. Wieder T, Perlitz C, Wieprecht M, Huang RT, Geilen CC, Orfanos CE. Two new sphingomyelin analogues inhibit phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis by decreasing membrane-bound CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase levels in HaCaT cells. Biochem J. 1995;311:873-879. 27. Essmann F, Wieder T, Otto A, Müller EC, Dörken B, Daniel PT. GDP dissociation inhibitor D4-GDI (Rho-GDI 2), but not the homologous Rho-GDI 1, is cleaved by caspase-3 during drug-induced apoptosis. Biochem J. 2000;346:777-783. 28. Smith PK, Krohn RI, Hermanson GT, et al. Measurement of protein using bicinchoninic acid. Anal Biochem. 1985;150:76-85[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 29. Laemmli UK. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature. 1970;227:680-685[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 30. Wieder T, Geilen CC, Wieprecht M, Becker A, Orfanos CE. Identification of a putative membrane-interacting domain of CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase from rat liver. FEBS Lett. 1994;345:207-210[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve].
31.
Zhou Q, Snipas S, Orth K, Muzio M, Dixit VM, Salvesen GS.
Target protease specificity of the viral serpin CrmA: analysis of five caspases.
J Biol Chem.
1997;272:7797-7800
32.
Geilen CC, Bektas M, Wieder T, Kodelja V, Goerdt S, Orfanos CE.
1 33. Lambert IH, Hoffmann EK, Jorgensen F. Membrane potential, anion and cation conductances in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells. J Membr Biol. 1989;111:113-131[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 34. Reers M, Smiley ST, Mottola-Hartshorn C, Chen A, Lin M, Chen LB. Mitochondrial membrane potential monitored by JC-1 dye. Methods Enzymol. 1995;260:406-417[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve].
35.
Chinnaiyan AM, Tepper CG, Seldin MF, et al.
FADD/MORT1 is a common mediator of CD95 (Fas/APO-1) and tumor necrosis factor receptor-induced apoptosis.
J Biol Chem.
1996;271:4961-4965
36.
Fulda S, Susin SA, Kroemer G, Debatin KM.
Molecular ordering of apoptosis induced by anticancer drugs in neuroblastoma cells.
Cancer Res.
1998;58:4453-4460 37. Melendez-Zajgla J, Cruz E, Maldonado V, Espinoza AM. Mitochondrial changes during the apoptotic process of HeLa cells exposed to cisplatin. Biochem Mol Biol Int. 1999;47:765-771[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 38. Li H, Zhu H, Xu CJ, Yuan J. Cleavage of BID by caspase 8 mediates the mitochondrial damage in the Fas pathway of apoptosis. Cell. 1998;94:491-501[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 39. Slee EA, Keogh SA, Martin SJ. Cleavage of BID during cytotoxic drug and UV radiation-induced apoptosis occurs downstream of the point of Bcl-2 action and is catalysed by caspase-3: a potential feedback loop for amplification of apoptosis-associated mitochondrial cytochrome c release. Cell Death Differ. 2000;7:556-565[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 40. Liu X, Kim CN, Yang J, Jemmerson R, Wang X. Induction of apoptotic program in cell-free extracts: requirement for dATP and cytochrome c. Cell. 1996;86:147-157[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve].
41.
Eischen CM, Kottke TJ, Martins LM, et al.
Comparison of apoptosis in wild-type and Fas-resistant cells: chemotherapy-induced apoptosis is not dependent on Fas/Fas ligand interactions.
Blood.
1997;90:935-943
42.
Cuvillier O, Mayhew E, Janoff AS, Spiegel S.
Liposomal ET-18-OCH(3) induces cytochrome c-mediated apoptosis independently of CD95 (APO-1/Fas) signaling.
Blood.
1999;94:3583-3592
43.
Scaffidi C, Schmitz I, Zha J, Korsmeyer SJ, Krammer PH, Peter ME.
Differential modulation of apoptosis sensitivity in CD95 type I and type II cells.
J Biol Chem.
1999;274:22532-22538
44.
Huang DC, Hahne M, Schroeter M, et al.
Activation of Fas by FasL induces apoptosis by a mechanism that cannot be blocked by Bcl-2 or Bcl-x(L).
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.
1999;96:14871-14876 45. Daniel PT, Krammer PH. Activation induces sensitivity toward APO-1 (CD95)-mediated apoptosis in human B cells. J Immunol. 1994;152:5624-5632[Abstract]. 46. Lagresle C, Bella C, Daniel PT, Krammer PH, Defrance T. Regulation of germinal center B cell differentiation: role of the human APO-1/Fas (CD95) molecule. J Immunol. 1995;154:5746-5756[Abstract]. 47. Posovszky C, Friesen C, Herr I, Debatin KM. Chemotherapeutic drugs sensitize pre-B ALL cells for CD95- and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-mediated apoptosis. Leukemia. 1999;13:400-409[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]. 48. Raisova M, Bektas M, Wieder T, et al. Resistance to CD95/Fas-induced and ceramide-mediated apoptosis of human melanoma cells is caused by a defective mitochondrial cytochrome c release. FEBS Lett. 2000;473:27-32[CrossRef][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve].
49.
Slee EA, Harte MT, Kluck RM, et al.
Ordering the cytochrome c-initiated caspase cascade: hierarchical activation of caspases-2, -3, -6, -7, -8, and -10 in a caspase-9-dependent manner.
J Cell Biol.
1999;144:281-292
50.
Wilson WH, Sorbara L, Figg WD, et al.
Modulation of clinical drug resistance in a B cell lymphoma patient by the protein kinase inhibitor 7-hydroxystaurosporine: presentation of a novel therapeutic paradigm.
Clin Cancer Res.
2000;6:415-421
© 2001 by The American Society of Hematology.
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 |
|
 |
|
  S. Elankumaran, D. Rockemann, and S. K. Samal Newcastle Disease Virus Exerts Oncolysis by both Intrinsic and Extrinsic Caspase-Dependent Pathways of Cell Death. J. Virol., August 1, 2006; 80(15): 7522 - 7534. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Rosas, P. F. Dijkers, C. L. Lindemans, J.-W. J. Lammers, L. Koenderman, and P. J. Coffer IL-5-mediated eosinophil survival requires inhibition of GSK-3 and correlates with {beta}-catenin relocalization J. Leukoc. Biol., July 1, 2006; 80(1): 186 - 195. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. Zhu, J. Chen, X. Cong, S. Hu, and X. Chen Hypoxia and Serum Deprivation-Induced Apoptosis in Mesenchymal Stem Cells Stem Cells, February 1, 2006; 24(2): 416 - 425. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Kim, K. Murphy, F. Liu, S. E. Parker, M. L. Dowling, W. Baff, and G. D. Kao Caspase-Mediated Specific Cleavage of BubR1 Is a Determinant of Mitotic Progression Mol. Cell. Biol., November 1, 2005; 25(21): 9232 - 9248. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H.-Y. Ryu, J. K. Emberley, J. J. Schlezinger, L. L. Allan, S. Na, and D. H. Sherr Environmental Chemical-Induced Bone Marrow B Cell Apoptosis: Death Receptor-Independent Activation of a Caspase-3 to Caspase-8 Pathway Mol. Pharmacol., October 1, 2005; 68(4): 1087 - 1096. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. F. Gaddy and D. S. Lyles Vesicular Stomatitis Viruses Expressing Wild-Type or Mutant M Proteins Activate Apoptosis through Distinct Pathways J. Virol., April 1, 2005; 79(7): 4170 - 4179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. H. Engels, G. Totzke, U. Fischer, K. Schulze-Osthoff, and R. U. Janicke Caspase-10 Sensitizes Breast Carcinoma Cells to TRAIL-Induced but Not Tumor Necrosis Factor-Induced Apoptosis in a Caspase- 3-Dependent Manner Mol. Cell. Biol., April 1, 2005; 25(7): 2808 - 2818. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Bergeron, M. Beauchemin, and R. Bertrand Camptothecin- and etoposide-induced apoptosis in human leukemia cells is independent of cell death receptor-3 and -4 aggregation but accelerates tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand-mediated cell death Mol. Cancer Ther., December 1, 2004; 3(12): 1659 - 1669. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. L. Krett, K. M. Davies, M. Ayres, C. Ma, C. Nabhan, V. Gandhi, and S. T. Rosen 8-Amino-adenosine is a potential therapeutic agent for multiple myeloma Mol. Cancer Ther., November 1, 2004; 3(11): 1411 - 1420. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Setterblad, V. Blancheteau, A. Delaguillaumie, F. Michel, S. Becart, G. Lombardi, O. Acuto, D. Charron, and N. Mooney Cognate MHC-TCR interaction leads to apoptosis of antigen-presenting cells J. Leukoc. Biol., June 1, 2004; 75(6): 1036 - 1044. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y.-G. Hur, Y. Yun, and J. Won Rosmarinic Acid Induces p56lck-Dependent Apoptosis in Jurkat and Peripheral T Cells via Mitochondrial Pathway Independent from Fas/Fas Ligand Interaction J. Immunol., January 1, 2004; 172(1): 79 - 87. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Greil, G. Anether, K. Johrer, and I. Tinhofer Tracking death dealing by Fas and TRAIL in lymphatic neoplastic disorders: pathways, targets, and therapeutic tools J. Leukoc. Biol., September 1, 2003; 74(3): 311 - 330. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. A. Kopecky and D. S. Lyles Contrasting Effects of Matrix Protein on Apoptosis in HeLa and BHK Cells Infected with Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Are due to Inhibition of Host Gene Expression J. Virol., April 15, 2003; 77(8): 4658 - 4669. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Huisman, C. G. Ferreira, L. E. Broker, J. A. Rodriguez, E. F. Smit, P. E. Postmus, F. A. E. Kruyt, and G. Giaccone Paclitaxel Triggers Cell Death Primarily via Caspase-independent Routes in the Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cell Line NCI-H460 Clin. Cancer Res., February 1, 2002; 8(2): 596 - 606. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Mokuno, T. Matsuguchi, M. Takano, H. Nishimura, J. Washizu, T. Ogawa, O. Takeuchi, S. Akira, Y. Nimura, and Y. Yoshikai Expression of Toll-Like Receptor 2 on {gamma}{delta} T Cells Bearing Invariant V{gamma}6/V{delta}1 Induced by Escherichia coli Infection in Mice J. Immunol., July 15, 2000; 165(2): 931 - 940. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 |
 |
 |
|||||||
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
||
| Copyright © 2001 by American Society of Hematology Online ISSN: 1528-0020 | |||||||||
Top
Abstract
Introduction
,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces sphingomyelin hydrolysis in HaCaT cells via tumor necrosis factor alpha.
J Biol Chem.
1997;272:8997-9001