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NEOPLASIA
From the North Shore-Long Island Jewish Research
Institute; the Department of Medicine, North Shore University Hospital;
and the Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine,
Manhasset, NY; Facultät für Chemie-Biochemi II,
Universität Bielefeld, Germany; the Department of Medicine, Long
Island Jewish Medical Center, and the Department of Medicine, Albert
Einstein College of Medicine, New Hyde Park, NY; and the Division of
Clinical Immunology, Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro,
Dipartmento Oncologia Clinica e Sperimentale Universita di Genova,
Genoa, Italy.
B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) is considered an
accumulative disease of antigen-naive CD5+ B lymphocytes
that circulate in the resting state. However, to evaluate the
possibility that B-CLL cells resemble antigen-experienced and activated
B cells, we analyzed the expression of markers of cellular activation
and differentiation on CD5+CD19+ cells from
B-CLL patients and from age-matched healthy donors. The
leukemic cells from all B-CLL patients, including those that lack
significant numbers of V gene mutations, bear the phenotype of
activated B cells based on the overexpression of the activation markers
CD23, CD25, CD69, and CD71 and the underexpression of CD22, Fc B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) has
been viewed as a homogeneous disease arising from the accumulation of
naive, antigen-inexperienced B lymphocytes that circulate in the
resting state (reviewed in Caligaris-Cappio et al1).
Indeed, the view that B-CLL cells are antigen-naive and resting is
consistent with their appearance as small lymphocytes with high
nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratios2 and their surface membrane
coexpression of immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgD, which usually marks
virgin B cells.3
Nonetheless, the concepts that B-CLL cells are homogeneous and similar
among patients and that they resemble antigen-naive and resting B cells
are currently being called into question. For example, the
documentation of somatic mutations in the leukemic lymphocytes of
greater than 50% of these patients4-7 indicates that
B-CLL cells are not necessarily similar among patients and that the
disease is not homogeneous in this respect. In fact, B-CLL cases can be
divided into at least 2 subgroups on the basis of the presence or
absence of significant numbers of V gene mutations; these subgroups
identify patients that follow strikingly dissimilar clinical
courses.8,9 Since the induction of immunoglobulin V gene mutations requires cellular activation and maturation
induced by antigen receptor engagement,10,11 B-CLL cells
with immunoglobulin V gene mutations resemble antigen-experienced B
cells that at one point in their evolution were activated and therefore
are not antigen-naive. On the basis of this reasoning, the question arises as to whether B-CLL cells that exhibit immunoglobulin V genes
with germ line-like sequences are indeed resting and antigen-naive or
whether they also represent B cells that were stimulated out of the
resting state by antigen but that did not accumulate mutations.
In addition, other data suggest that in vivo activation, albeit
abortive, can occur in B-CLL. For example, B-CLL cells can express
elevations of cyclin D2 without increases of the other cyclins that
follow in cell cycle progression.12 Furthermore, B-CLL cells can exhibit constitutive translocation of nuclear factor of
activated T cells (NF-ATp)13 and
phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT-1) and STAT-3.14 Finally, most B-CLL cells express
CD23, a cell surface marker acquired after B-cell
activation.15-18 These findings suggest that certain B-CLL
cells or their precursors may have been triggered and may have
attempted to traverse the cell cycle, and may therefore not be
resting or antigen-naive.
To examine further the possibility that the leukemic cells from all
B-CLL cases are antigen-experienced and exist in an activated state, we
analyzed the expression of a panel of surface markers that define
cellular activation and differentiation in a large cohort of B-CLL
patients. The data indicate that all B-CLL cells, including those from
patients with unmutated immunoglobulin V genes, bear the surface
membrane phenotype of activated and antigen-experienced B lymphocytes.
Furthermore, comparative analyses of the unmutated and mutated
subgroups indicate different activation phenotypes, suggesting that
they resemble B cells that differ in the time since their antigenic
stimulation and, possibly, B cells activated by different activation stimuli.
Patients and healthy donors
Isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells
Cellular immunophenotypic analyses The panel of antibodies described in Table 1 was used to analyze subsets of CD5+ B cells expressing various surface markers that identify the activation/differentiation state of cells. Initially, each antibody preparation was titrated to determine the amount that identified positive cells with the optimal mean fluorescence intensity; this amount was then used in subsequent studies. For direct immunofluorescent analyses, PBMCs were suspended at a concentration of 107 cells per milliliter in fluorescent-activated cell sorter (FACS) buffer (1% bovine serum albumin and 0.1% sodium azide in phosphate-buffered saline [PBS], pH 7.2) and 50 µL cells were added to the standardized volumes of fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies. The cells were incubated for 30 minutes at 4°C, and excess, unbound antibodies were removed by 2 washes with FACS buffer. Following these washes, cells were fixed with PBS containing 2% formaldehyde for at least 2 hours before analysis on a flow cytometer (FACScan, Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA). The CellQuest program was used for statistical analysis of the acquired data.
The expression of CD77, Fc Statistical analyses The percentages of normal CD5+ B cells expressing various surface markers were compared with those of the leukemic cells from the B-CLL cases studied. The statistical significance of the observed differences was deduced by means of the Mann-Whitney test. Differences in the density of expression of surface markers were similarly analyzed to determine statistical significance.
Comparison of surface membrane phenotypes of B-CLL cells and of normal peripheral blood CD5+ B cells CD5+ B cells from B-CLL patients and age-matched healthy individuals were studied by 3-color immunofluorescence for expression of surface molecules that indicate different stages of cellular activation or differentiation. The percentages of B-CLL cells and normal CD5+ B cells expressing CD24, CD30, CD44, CD45RA, CD77, CD86, HLA-DR, and syndecan-1 were comparable. However, significantly higher numbers of B-CLL cells expressed the markers CD23, CD25, CD27, CD39, CD69, and CD71 (Figure 1). In contrast, significantly fewer B-CLL cells expressed CD22, CD32/Fc RIIb, CD38, CD40, CD154/CD40 ligand (CD154/CD40L), CD62L, CD72, CD79b, CD80, and CD95 (Figure 2).
Although the percentage of leukemic cells expressing CD38 among all the B-CLL patients studied was lower than the percentage of normal CD5+ B cells, when the 2 subgroups of B-CLL cases, defined on the basis of immunoglobulin V gene mutation status (see below), were independently compared with the CD5+ B cells from normal donors, the data were different. Specifically, in regard to the percentages of cells expressing CD38, the unmutated cases were similar to the normal CD5+ B cells (P = .083), whereas the mutated cases were different from normal CD5+ B cells (P < .001). To measure the density of expression of an individual marker, we
calculated the ratio of the mean fluorescence intensity (MFIR) of
antibody binding to the surface molecule relative to the mean fluorescence intensity of nonspecific binding of a corresponding isotype "control" antibody. B-CLL cells and normal CD5+
B cells expressed CD23, CD25, CD69, and CD71 at comparable densities (data not shown). However, CD5 and CD27 were expressed on B-CLL cells
at significantly higher densities compared with normal CD5+
cells, whereas CD22, Fc
Although the density of expression of surface membrane IgM (smIgM) and smIgD on B-CLL cells was significantly lower than on normal CD5+ B cells (P < .001; Figure 3), the ratio of surface IgM-to-IgD on B-CLL cells was significantly higher (mean, 1.58) compared with normal CD5+ B cells (mean, 0.66; P < .05). Comparison of surface phenotypes of IgM+ and IgG+ B-CLL patients Although most B-CLL patients bear smIgM, some express non-IgM isotypes.21,22 When we analyzed the same markers on the 10 IgG+ B-CLL patients in our cohort, we found significantly higher percentages of cells expressing CD27 (mean, 97.5% versus 85.6%), CD62L (mean, 59.7% versus 34.5%), and CD72 (mean, 89.8% versus 75.3%), and significantly lower percentages of cells expressing syndecan-1 (mean, 2.7% versus 14.9%), as compared with the 51 IgM+ cases (P < .001). These markers were expressed at similar densities in the IgG+ and IgM+ cases.Phenotypic differences in B-CLL cases grouped by immunoglobulin V gene mutation status Because immunoglobulin V gene mutation status segregates B-CLL cases into 2 subgroups7 with significantly different clinical courses,8,9 we compared the phenotypes of our B-CLL cases stratified in this manner. The cases were classified as unmutated if both their immunoglobulin VH and their VL genes differed by less than 2% from the most similar germ line counterpart; they were classified as mutated if either their immunoglobulin VH or their VL genes differed by 2% or more from the corresponding germ line gene. The unmutated group contained significantly higher percentages of leukemic cells expressing CD38, CD69, and CD40, whereas the mutated group contained significantly higher percentages of B-CLL cells expressing CD62L, CD71, and CD39 (Figure 4).
The density of expression of these molecules was comparable in the 2 groups. This was also true for CD38, despite the marked difference
between the unmutated and mutated groups (P = .39) in the
percentage of cells expressing this molecule. In contrast, HLA-DR was expressed at a significantly higher density on the leukemic
cells of the unmutated B-CLL group (P < .01; Figure
5).
CD69 and CD71 are indicators of cellular activation that follow different kinetics of expression. CD69 is expressed very quickly (within 4 hours) after cell triggering, whereas CD71 is expressed much later.23-25 Since the unmutated B-CLL cases contain significantly higher percentages of CD69+ cells and lower percentages of CD71+ cells than the mutated group (Figure 4), we determined the ratio of CD69 to CD71 expression in the 2 groups. When the IgM+ and IgG+ cases were analyzed together, a significant difference in the CD69-to-CD71 ratios was found (P < .0001). When the IgM+ and IgG+ cases were analyzed separately, the IgM+ B-CLL cases exhibited this difference (P < .0001), whereas the IgG+ cases did not. This discordance may reflect the limited number of isotype-switched samples available for study (n = 10). When we plotted the percentages of cells expressing these 2 markers in
each individual B-CLL case, we observed strikingly different patterns.
In general, a reciprocal relationship was found between CD69 and
CD71 expression (Figure 6). In
approximately 80% of unmutated cases, the percentage of
CD69+ B-CLL cells was higher than that of CD71+
cells; in contrast, only approximately 20% of mutated cases showed a
higher percentage of CD69 expression.
Phenotypic differences in B-CLL cases grouped by CD38 expression We previously reported that B-CLL cases can be subdivided into 2 groups on the basis of the percentage of leukemic cells that express CD38.8,26 Therefore, we subdivided our patients on the basis of CD38 expression (CD38+ for 30% or more CD38-expressing cells; CD38 for 30% or fewer
CD38-expressing cells) and reanalyzed the surface marker
expression data.
A significantly higher percentage of the CD38+ cases
expressed CD40, CD69, and CD79b (Figure
7). In addition, the density of expression of HLA-DR by the CD38+ group was significantly
higher compared with the CD38
However, the expression of CD39, CD62L, and CD71 was not
different in the CD38+ and CD38
The preceding data demonstrate that the leukemic cells from all B-CLL cases studied differ significantly in their surface membrane phenotypes from normal antigen-naive and resting CD5+ B cells. Indeed, the phenotypic picture that emerges is that B-CLL resembles the clonal expansion of mature antigen-experienced (not naive) B lymphocytes and that these leukemic cells exhibit an activated (not resting) state that is more advanced than that of normal circulating CD5+ B cells from age-matched controls. B-CLL cells from all cases display an activated surface membrane phenotype B-cell activation is generally accompanied by changes in the cell surface expression and/or density of certain critical functional molecules. Since our studies indicate that B-CLL cells from all cases express the classical activation markers CD23, CD25, CD69, and CD71 (albeit in varying degrees; see below), these cells clearly display an activated surface membrane phenotype. Furthermore, the increased density of expression of CD5 and CD27 on B-CLL cells (Figure 3) is in line with the activation hypothesis, since the level of both of these markers can be up-regulated upon cellular activation.27-30 Additional support for this hypothesis comes from data indicating that B lymphocytes from B-CLL patients express CD23 and other activation or costimulatory molecules and receptor/counter-receptor pairs16-18,31-33 and can express intracellular signaling intermediates.12-14The reduction in the percentage of positivity and density of expression of CD22, CD32, CD79b, and IgD (Figures 2-3) is also consistent with cellular activation. B cells stimulated via the B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) down-regulate CD79b, either by modulating transcription or by splicing of messenger RNA.34,35 Furthermore, the reduced smIgD-to-smIgM ratio reported here may also reflect activation-induced modulation since mature B cells that coexpress IgM and IgD down-regulate IgD upon BCR signaling.36,37 Indeed, B-CLL cells from most patients exhibit diminished levels of surface immunoglobulin.38-41 Of interest is the reduced expression of CD22 and CD32 (Figures 2-3;
Bourgois et al36; Merson and Brochier39),
molecules that participate in the negative regulation of
BCR-mediated42-45 and CD38-mediated46
responses. Since B cells down-regulate CD22 and probably Fc B-CLL cases that differ in immunoglobulin V gene mutation status also differ in activation phenotype In addition to documenting the activated state of the leukemic cells of B-CLL cases as a whole, we have identified differences between the B-CLL subgroups defined by immunoglobulin V gene mutations. The V gene unmutated subgroup contains more cells expressing CD38, CD69, and CD40 and fewer cells expressing CD71, CD62L, and CD39 (Figure 4). In addition, the cells in this group express considerably more HLA-DR than the mutated group (Figure 5).The time interval between cellular activation and the modulation of these markers differs considerably among normal B cells, in that the up-regulation of CD69 and HLA-DR and the down-regulation of CD62L occur more proximally to the inductive stimulus than the up-regulation of CD71.23-25,54 The strong inverse correlation between CD69 and CD71 expression (P < .001) by the unmutated versus the mutated subgroups (Figure 6) supports the notion that these subgroups approximate cells that differ in the interval since cellular triggering, with the unmutated group resembling B cells at an earlier state of activation than the mutated group. Finally, our criterion for assigning a B-CLL case to the mutated category (ie, a 2% or greater difference from the most similar germ line gene counterpart) is based on a convention decided upon several years ago when the degree of polymorphism of the human VH locus was less rigorously understood. Since this locus has now been sequenced, it may be reasonable to set the cutoff for this category at 1% or greater difference from the most similar germ line gene. Among the cohort of B-CLL patients studied here, 4 (all IgM+) exhibited mutations in the 1% to 2% range; these would be considered mutated if the cutoff were moved to a 1% or greater difference. Nevertheless, when we did a statistical analysis of our cases using a 1% mutation as the cutoff point, essentially the same significant differences in marker expression were observed as when we considered 2% mutation as the cutoff. Specifically, the percentage of B-CLL cells expressing CD38, CD39, CD40, CD69, and CD71 in patients with less than a 1% difference from the most similar germ line gene was significantly different from the patients with a 1% or greater difference (P < .05 for all). The difference in the percentage of B-CLL cells expressing CD62L among these 2 groups, however, did not achieve statistical significance with the 1% cutoff (P = .14). Furthermore, the difference in the density of expression of HLA-DR by the CLL cells of these 2 groups also remained statistically significant when the 1% cutoff was used (P < .05). B-CLL cases that differ in CD38 expression also differ in activation phenotype Since CD38 expression defines 2 groups of B-CLL cases8 that follow different clinical courses,8,55 we also analyzed our data to determine if a correlation exists between CD38 expression and a composite surface membrane phenotype.The CD38+ cases show significantly more B-CLL cells
expressing CD40, CD69, and CD79b (Figure 7) and a higher density of
expression of HLA-DR as compared with the CD38 When these results were compared with those based on V gene mutation
status, the B-CLL cells in the CD38+ group resembled the
unmutated group with respect to CD40 and CD69 expression and the ratios
of CD69 to CD71 expression. However, they differed in regard to CD39,
CD62L, and CD79b expression. These results are consistent with the idea
that these 2 sets of subgroups overlap but are not
identical.8,9,26 The major phenotypic feature that
discriminates the CD38+ from the CD38 B-CLL cases do not appear to be antigen-naive The assignment of the mutated cases to the memory compartment seems incontrovertible since these cells express significant numbers of immunoglobulin V gene mutations that are markers of BCR triggering and antigen encounter. However, since CD27 is a memory cell marker,56-58 the presence of very large numbers of CD27+ cells (approximately 90%) in all B-CLL cases demonstrated in this study (Figure 1) and others59-61 implies that all B-CLL cases resemble antigen-experienced and "memory" B lymphocytes. Indeed, it is intriguing to consider the possibility that the expression of CD27 as well as the down-regulation of CD22, FcRIIb, CD79b, and IgD (Figure 2) on the unmutated cases is
also a reflection of previous triggering and memory. If so, then it is
necessary to consider why these cases lack, or have very few,
immunoglobulin V gene mutations. There are several possibilities. For
example, these B cells may not have developed mutations because the
appropriate mutational machinery was not activated. This could result
because (1) the B cells were stimulated by antigens that could not turn on the mutation machinery and/or the germinal center reaction (eg, by
T-cell-independent antigens, including autoantigens or other
autologous structures); (2) the B cells were activated in a
T-cell-dependent manner but were transformed before entering a
germinal center; or (3) the B cells, after transformation, were prevented from participating in the germinal center reaction. Alternatively, these cases could have arisen from B cells that were
activated and subsequently selected by antigens that are most reactive
with unmutated immunoglobulin V genes. The CD38 data support the
first possibility since CD38 can be expressed with cellular
activation59,60 and induced by T cell-independent stimuli,30 whereas the restricted VH CDR3
features that are characteristic of the unmutated B-CLL
cases7,62,63 support the last possibility.
Concluding considerations All of the above conclusions are based on the hypothesis that the surface membrane phenotypes of B-CLL cells reflect their antigenic and activation experiences. Nevertheless, we cannot rule out the possibility that the expression of these marker proteins is a consequence of genetic abnormalities that occurred during leukemic transformation. However, if this is the case, then either different transformation mechanisms exist for the 2 subgroups or a common transforming event exists that is accompanied by other variables (such as in vivo activation) as an explanation for the differences in marker expression. Further studies will be necessary to clarify this issue.
We thank Ms Cathy Rapelje and Ms Grace Lee for performing flow cytometric analyses.
Submitted September 18, 2001; accepted December 30, 2001.
Supported in part by US Public Health Service grants CA81554, CA87956, and AI 10811 from the National Institutes of Health; the Jean Walton Fund for Lymphoma and Myeloma Research; the Joseph Eletto Leukemia Research Fund; the Sass Foundation for Medical Research; and the Richard and Nancy Leeds Fund of North Shore University Hospital.
The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. Therefore, and solely to indicate this fact, this article is hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. section 1734.
Presented in part at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the American Society of Hematology, December 1-5, 2000, San Francisco, CA. Reprints: Nicholas Chiorazzi, North Shore-Long Island Jewish Research Institute, 350 Community Dr, Manhasset, NY 11030; e-mail: nchizzi{at}nshs.edu.
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H. Gary-Gouy, A. Sainz-Perez, J.-B. Marteau, A. Marfaing-Koka, J. Delic, H. Merle-Beral, P. Galanaud, and A. Dalloul Natural Phosphorylation of CD5 in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia B Cells and Analysis of CD5-Regulated Genes in a B Cell Line Suggest a Role for CD5 in Malignant Phenotype J. Immunol., October 1, 2007; 179(7): 4335 - 4344. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Ian Mockridge, K. N. Potter, I. Wheatley, L. A. Neville, G. Packham, and F. K. Stevenson Reversible anergy of sIgM-mediated signaling in the two subsets of CLL defined by VH-gene mutational status Blood, May 15, 2007; 109(10): 4424 - 4431. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Tiwari, K. Felekkis, E.-Y. Moon, A. Flies, D. H. Sherr, and A. Lerner Among circulating hematopoietic cells, B-CLL uniquely expresses functional EPAC1, but EPAC1-mediated Rap1 activation does not account for PDE4 inhibitor-induced apoptosis Blood, April 1, 2004; 103(7): 2661 - 2667. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Ghia, G. Prato, C. Scielzo, S. Stella, M. Geuna, G. Guida, and F. Caligaris-Cappio Monoclonal CD5+ and CD5- B-lymphocyte expansions are frequent in the peripheral blood of the elderly Blood, March 15, 2004; 103(6): 2337 - 2342. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Caligaris-Cappio The cycling history of CLL Blood, January 15, 2004; 103(2): 367 - 367. [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. N. Damle, F. M. Batliwalla, F. Ghiotto, A. Valetto, E. Albesiano, C. Sison, S. L. Allen, J. Kolitz, V. P. Vinciguerra, P. Kudalkar, et al. Telomere length and telomerase activity delineate distinctive replicative features of the B-CLL subgroups defined by immunoglobulin V gene mutations Blood, January 15, 2004; 103(2): 375 - 382. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Kern, J.-F. Cornuel, C. Billard, R. Tang, D. Rouillard, V. Stenou, T. Defrance, F. Ajchenbaum-Cymbalista, P.-Y. Simonin, S. Feldblum, et al. Involvement of BAFF and APRIL in the resistance to apoptosis of B-CLL through an autocrine pathway Blood, January 15, 2004; 103(2): 679 - 688. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Gamberale, J. R. Geffner, J. Sanjurjo, P. X. Fernandez-Calotti, G. Arrosagaray, J. S. Avalos, and M. Giordano Expression of Fc{gamma} receptors type II (Fc{gamma}RII) in chronic lymphocytic leukemia B cells Blood, October 1, 2003; 102(7): 2698 - 2699. [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. McCarthy, W. G. Wierda, L. L. Barron, C. C. Cromwell, J. Wang, K. R. Coombes, R. Rangel, K. S. J. Elenitoba-Johnson, M. J. Keating, and L. V. Abruzzo High expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and splice variants is a distinctive feature of poor-prognosis chronic lymphocytic leukemia Blood, June 15, 2003; 101(12): 4903 - 4908. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Wiestner, A. Rosenwald, T. S. Barry, G. Wright, R. E. Davis, S. E. Henrickson, H. Zhao, R. E. Ibbotson, J. A. Orchard, Z. Davis, et al. ZAP-70 expression identifies a chronic lymphocytic leukemia subtype with unmutated immunoglobulin genes, inferior clinical outcome, and distinct gene expression profile Blood, June 15, 2003; 101(12): 4944 - 4951. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E.-Y. Moon and A. Lerner PDE4 inhibitors activate a mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells that is regulated by protein phosphatase 2A Blood, May 15, 2003; 101(10): 4122 - 4130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. J. Keating, N. Chiorazzi, B. Messmer, R. N. Damle, S. L. Allen, K. R. Rai, M. Ferrarini, and T. J. Kipps Biology and Treatment of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Hematology, January 1, 2003; 2003(1): 153 - 175. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Cerutti, H. Zan, E. C. Kim, S. Shah, E. J. Schattner, A. Schaffer, and P. Casali Ongoing In Vivo Immunoglobulin Class Switch DNA Recombination in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia B Cells J. Immunol., December 1, 2002; 169(11): 6594 - 6603. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. E. Kay, T. J. Hamblin, D. F. Jelinek, G. W. Dewald, J. C. Byrd, S. Farag, M. Lucas, and T. Lin Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Hematology, January 1, 2002; 2002(1): 193 - 213. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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Abstract
Introduction
receptors type II (Fc